natomy & Physiology
Chapter 7: Nervous System
Nervous System
/ \
CNS PNS
(brain + spinal cord) (peripheral nerves)
/ \
Autonomic Somatic
(involuntary) (voluntary)
/ \
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
(fight or flight) (normal)
Increase heart rate, decrease digestion everyday functions
A. Functions
a. Sensory imput—gathering information:
i. To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body
ii. Changes = stimuli
b. Integration
i. To process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed
c. Motor output
i. A response to integrated stimuli
ii. The response activateds muscles or glands
B. Structural classification
a. Central nervous system (CNS)
i. Brain
ii. Spinal Cord
b. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
i. Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord;
ii. Spinal nerves
iii. Cranial nerves
c. Sensory (afferent)
i. Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system from our five senses
d. Motor (efferent)
i. Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system (to muscles or glands)
ii. Two subdivisions:
1. Somatic nervous system = voluntary
2. Autonomimc nervous system = involuntary
C. Nervous tissue
a. Neuroglia
i. Astrocytes
ii. Microglia
iii. Ependymal cells
iv. Oligodendrocytes
v. Satellite cells
vi. Schwann cells
b. Neurons
i. Major regions
1. cell body
2. outside body
a. dendrites
b. axons
i. terminals
ii. synaptic cleft
iii. synapse
iv. myelin sheath
1. Schwann cells
2. Nodes of Ranvier
ii. Locations
1. Gray matter
2. Nuclei
3. Ganglia
Chapter 7: Nervous System
Part 2: Central Nervous System
A. Development
a. CNS develops from the Embryonic neural tube
i. The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord
b. The opening of the hollow neural tube becomes the ventricles:
i. Four chambers within the brain
ii. Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
B. Regions of the brain
a. Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum)
i. Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
ii. Mass: includes more than half of the brain mass
iii. Surface, made of gyri and sulci
1. Gyri
a. AKA Ridges
2. Sulci
a. AKA grooves
iv. Lobes
1. Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes
2. Surface lobes of the cerebrum (named for adjacent bones):
a. Frontal
b. Parietal
c. Occipital
d. Temporal
v. Specialized areas of the cerebrum:
1. Primary somatic sensory:
a. Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
b. Located in parietal lobe
2. Primary motor
a. Sends impulses to skeletal muscles
b. Located in frontal lobe
3. Broca’s Lobe:
a. Involved in our ability to speak
4. Special senses involved in the cerebral areas
a. Gustatory (taste)
b. Visual
c. Auditory (hearing)
d. Olfactory (smell)
5. Interpretation areas
vi. Layers of the cerebrum:
1. Gray matter
a. Outer layer in the cerebral cotex composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
2. White matter
a. Fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
b. Corpus callosum connects hemispheres
3. Basal nuclei
a. Islands of gray matter buried within the white matter
b. Diencephalon
i. Location
1. Sits on top of the brain stem
2. Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
ii. Made of three parts
1. Thalamus
a. Location
i. Surrounds the third ventricle
b. Functions
i. The relay station for sensory impulses
ii. Transfers impulses to the cortex
2. Hypothalamus
a. Location
i. Under the thalamus
b. Functions: autonomic nervous system center
i. Helps regulate body temperature
ii. Controls water balance
iii. Regulates metabolism
iv. An important part of the limbic system (emotions)
c. Pituitary gland: master gland of endocrine system
3. Epithalamus
a. Location
i. Forms the roof of the third ventricle
ii. Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
b. Functions
c. Brain stem
i. Location
1. Attaches to the spinal cord
ii. Parts
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla oblongata
a. Controls
i. Heart rate
ii. Blood pressure
iii. Breathing
b. Control centers
4. Reticular formation
a. Reticular activating system (RAS)
d. Cerebellum
i. Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
ii. Provides involuntary coordination of body movements
Friday, January 28, 2011
Chapter 6 Outline
Chapter 6: The Muscular System
1. Overview/similarities of muscle tissue
a. Muscles: responsible for all types of body movement
b. Muscle types (Table 6.1)
i. Skeletal
ii. Cardiac – found only in heart
iii. Smooth – internal systems like tube shaped organs, also hairs
c. Characteristics
i. Muscle cells are elongated (Muscle fiber = muscle cell)
ii. Contraction of muscles is due to the movement of microfilaments
iii. Prefixes
1. Sarcolemma
2. Sarcoplasm
3. Prefixes:
a. Myo and Mys = muscle
b. Sarco = flesh
d. Functional characteristics of muscle tissue
i. Excitability (also called responsiveness or irritability)—ability to receive and respond to a stimulus
ii. Contractility—ability to shorten when an adequate stimulus is recieved
iii. Extensibility—ability of muscle cells to be stretched
iv. Elasticity—ability to recoil and resume resting length after stretching
2. Skeletal muscle
a. Characteristics
i. Most are attached by tendons to bones
ii. Cells are multinucleate
iii. Striations—have visible banding (straight lines)
iv. Control—voluntary (subject to conscious control
b. Connective tissue wrappings:
i. Endomysium –encloses a single muscle fiber
ii. Epimysium—covers the entire skeletal muscle
iii. Perimysium—wraps around a fascicle (bundle) of muscle fibers
iv. Fascia—on the outside of the epimysium
v. Tendon—cord-like structures
1. When epimysium blends into a connective tissue attachment.
2. Epimysium is a wrapping that extends into a tendon
3. Mostly collagen fibers
4. Often cross a joint due to toughness and small size
vi. Aponeurosis—sheet-like structures
1. Attach muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages, or connective tissue coverings
c. Where skeletal muscles attach:
i. Bones
ii. Cartilages
iii. Connective Tissue coverings
3. Smooth muscles
a. Characteristics
i. Lacks striations
ii. Spindle-shaped cells
iii. Single Nucleus
iv. Control: involuntary—no conscious control
v. Where: found mainly in the walls of hollow organs
4. Cardiac muscles
a. Characteristics
i. Striations
ii. Usually single Nucleus
iii. Branching Cells
iv. Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc
v. Control: involuntary
vi. Where: only in the heart
5. Physiology of skeletal muscle
a. Muscle functions
i. Produce movement
ii. Maintain posture
iii. Stabilize joints
iv. Generate heat (movement)
b. Microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle
i. Sarcolemma—specialized plasma membrane
ii. Myofibrils—long organelles inside muscle cell
iii. Sarcoplasmic reticulum—specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
c. Myofibrils are aligned to give distinct bands
i. Sarcomere – functional unit of classification
1. Myofilaments
a. Myosin = thick filaments
b. Actin = thin filaments
2. Striations = patterns of cross stripes (Fig 6.3)
a. A band = dark band
i. Contains the entire length of the thick filaments
b. I band = light band
i. Contains only thin filaments
c. Z line
d. H zone
e. M line
ii. Ultrastructure and chemical composition of myofilaments (Fig. 6.7)
1. Myosin
a. Two heads
i. Actin binding site
ii. ATP binding site and ATPase
b. One tail
2. Thin filaments = actin + tropomyosin + troponin
a. Two strands of G-actin twisted
b. Two strands of tropomyosin
c. Troponin covers binding sites
iii. Sarcoplasmic reticulum – transmits calcium to myoplasm when stimulated
d. Generation of action potential across sarcolemma
i. Action potential defined -
ii. Resting potential
iii. Depolarization
iv. Repolarization
6. Contraction of skeletal muscle fiber
a. Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
b. Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be stimulated during the same interval
c. Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions may give differing responses
d. The neuromuscular junction (Fig. 6.5)
e. The nerve stimulus and action potential
i. The motor unit (Fig. 6.4)
f. From nerve impulse to muscle contraction
i. Neurotransmitters –
ii. Acetylcholine (Ach) -
g. The Sliding Filament Theory of muscle contraction
7. Physiology of skeletal muscle contraction
a. Characteristics
i. “All or none”
ii. Stimulated fibers
iii. Combinations of fibers
iv. Graded responses—different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening
1. Can be produced by changing:
2. The frequency of muscle stimulation
3. The number of muscle cells being stimulated at one time
b. Types of graded responses
i. Twitch – a single, brief contraction
1. Not a normal muscle function
2. Stimulus, latent period, contraction, relaxation
3. Incomplete and complete tetanus
ii. Summation –
1. Incomplete (treppe)
2. Fused
iii. Tetanus
1. One contraction immediately followed by another
2. The muscle does not completely return to resting state
3. The effects are added
iv. Unfused (Incomplete) tetanus
1. Some relaxation occurs between contractions
2. The results are summed
v. Fused (complete) tetanus
1. No evidence of relaxation before the following contractions
2. The result is a sustained muscle contraction
vi. Muscle response to strong stimuli
1. Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers stimulated
2. More fibers contracting results inu greater muscle tension
3. Muscles can continue to contract unless they run out of energy
c. Energy for muscle contraction
i. Initially muscles used stored ATP for energy:
1. ATP bonds are broken to release energy
2. Only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by muscles
ii. After initial time, other pathways must be utilized to produced ATP
iii. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP):
1. Muscle cells stored CP
a. CP is a high-energy molecule
2. After ATP (high energy) is depleted, ADP (low energy) is left
3. CP Transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP
4. CP supplies are exhausted in less than 15 seconds
iv. Aerobic respiration:
1. Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy (ATP)
2. This is a slower reaction that requires continuous oxygen
3. A series of metabolic pathways in the mitochondria
v. Anaerobic respiration/lactic acid formation
1. Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
2. When glucose is broken down only limited ATP is produced
3. This reaction is not as efficient, but is fast
4. Lactic acid produces muscle fatigue
vi. Muscle fatigue/oxygen debt
1. When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to contract even with a stimulus
2. Common cause for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt:
3. Oxygen must be “repaid” to tissue to remove oxygen deficit (heavy breathing)
4. Oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated lactic acid
5. Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of ATP causes the muscle to contract less
vii. Isotonic contractions:
1. Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during contractions
2. The muscle shortens and movement occurs
viii. Isometric contractions:
1. Tension in the muscles increases
2. The muscle is unable to shorten or produce movement
ix. Muscle tone
1. Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed muscle
2. Different fibers contract at different times to provide muscle tone
3. What is rigor mortis?
a. Muscles stiffen 3-4 hours after death, dissipates in 48-72 hours as muscle fibers begin to decompose
b. Due to cross bridge formation, but no ATP synthesis to release the bridges
x. Effect of exercise on muscles
1. Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance:
2. Low resistance (aerobic)
a. Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging):
i. Stronger, more flexible muscles, greater resistance to fatigue:
b. Makes body metabolism more efficent
3. Resistance (isometric) exercise (weight lifting) increases muscle size and strength
4. High resistance (anaerobic)
d. Velocity and duration of contraction
i. Muscle fiber type
1. Slow oxidative fibers – dark meat
2. Fast oxidative fibers – white meat
8. Muscles and body movement
a. Movement is attained due to a muscle moving an attached bone
b. Five golden rules of skeletal muscle activity – Table 6.2
c. Muscle attachments
Muscles are attached to atleast two points:
i. Origin – anchored end of muscle, doesn’t move
1. Attachment to an immovable bone
ii. Insertion – anchored end of muscle that does move
1. Attachment to a movable bone
iii. Action – describes the movement of the muscle (ie. Extensor)
d. Types of body movement
i. Flexion & extension
1. Flexion
a. Decreases the angle of the joint
b. Brings two bones closer together
c. Typical of hinge joints like knee and elbow
2. Extension
a. Increases angle between two bones
3. Hyperextension
a. Increasing angle beyond 180 degrees
ii. Rotation
1. Movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis
2. Common in ball-and-socket joints
3. Example is when you move atlas around the dens of axis (shake your head ”no”)
iii. Abduction & adduction
1. Abduction
a. Movement of a limb away from the midline
2. Adduction
a. Opposite of abduction
b. Movement of a limb toward the midline
iv. Circumduction
1. Combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction: swing with one end free and one end stable
2. Common in ball-and-socket joints
v. Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion
1. Dorsiflexion
a. Lifting the foot so that the superior surface approaches the shin
2. Plantar flexion
a. Depressing the foot (pointing the toes)
vi. Inversion & eversion
1. Inversion
a. Turn sole of foot medially
2. Eversion
a. Turn sole of foot laterally
vii. Supination & pronation
1. Supination
a. Forearm rotates laterally so palm faces anteriorly
2. Pronation
a. Forearm rotates medially so palm faces posteriorly
viii. Special Movements
1. Opposition
a. Move thumb to touch the tips of other fingers on the same hand
2. Protraction
a. Sticking out head or parts of face
3. Retraction
a. Pulling in head or parts of face
e. Types of muscle movement
1. Prime mover = agonists
a. Muscle with the major responsibility for a certain movement
2. Antagonist
a. Muscle that opposes or reverses a prime mover
3. Synergist
a. Muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps prevent rotation
4. Fixator
a. Stabilizes the origin of a prime mover (hold a bone still), back muscles for posture
f. Naming skeletal muscles
i. Location
1. Example
a. Temporalis (temporal bone)
ii. By number of origins
1. Examples
a. Triceps (three heads)
iii. By location of the muscle’s origin and insertion
1. Example
a. Sterno (on the sternum)
iv. Shape of muscle
1. Deltoid (triangular)
2. Trapezius
3. Serratus
4. Rhomboid
v. Relative size
1. Maximus
2. Minimus
3. Longus
4. Brevis
vi. By action of the muscle
1. Example
a. Flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)
vii. Direction of muscle fibers
1. Rectus
2. Transverses
3. Oblique
g. Number of origins
i. Bi
ii. Tri
iii. Quad
h. Location of attachments
i. Origin – anchored end of muscle, doesn’t move
ii. Insertion – anchored end of muscle that does move
i. Action – describes the movement of the muscle (ie. Extensor)
9. Major skeletal muscles of the body & prime action
a. Muscles of the head
i. Muscles of the scalp
1. Frontalis
2. Occipitalis
ii. Muscles of the face
1. Orbicularis oculi
2. Zygomaticus major
3. Levator labii superioris
4. Orbicularis oris
b. Muscles of mastication (chewing)
i. Masseter
ii. Temporalis
c. Muscles of the neck
i. Sternocleidomastoid
d. Muscles of the thorax/breathing
i. External intercostals
ii. Internal intercostals
iii. Diaphragm
e. Muscles of the abdominal wall
i. Rectus abdominis
ii. Transverse abdominis
iii. External oblique
iv. Internal oblique
f. Muscles of anterior thorax/ moving scapulae
i. Serratus anterior
g. Muscles of posterior thorax
i. Trapezius
ii. Levator scapulae
iii. Rhomboid major and minor
h. Muscles crossing the shoulder (arm movement)
i. Pectoralis major
ii. Latissimus dorsi
iii. Deltoid
iv. Rotator cuff = supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis
i. Muscles crossing the elbow (flexion & extension of forearm)
i. Triceps brachii
ii. Biceps brachii
iii. Brachioradialis
j. Muscles moving wrist and hand
i. Flexor carpi radialis
ii. Flexor carpi ulnaris
iii. Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis
k. Muscles crossing hip & knee joint (movement of thigh & leg)
i. Sartorius
ii. Gracilis
iii. Quadriceps femoris
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vastus medialis
3. Vastus intermedius
4. Vastus lateralis
iv. Gluteus maximus
v. Hamstrings (posterior thigh muscles)
1. Biceps femoris
2. Semimembranosus
3. Semitendinosus
l. Muscles of the leg
i. Tibialis anterior
ii. Gastrocnemius
iii. Soleus
1. Overview/similarities of muscle tissue
a. Muscles: responsible for all types of body movement
b. Muscle types (Table 6.1)
i. Skeletal
ii. Cardiac – found only in heart
iii. Smooth – internal systems like tube shaped organs, also hairs
c. Characteristics
i. Muscle cells are elongated (Muscle fiber = muscle cell)
ii. Contraction of muscles is due to the movement of microfilaments
iii. Prefixes
1. Sarcolemma
2. Sarcoplasm
3. Prefixes:
a. Myo and Mys = muscle
b. Sarco = flesh
d. Functional characteristics of muscle tissue
i. Excitability (also called responsiveness or irritability)—ability to receive and respond to a stimulus
ii. Contractility—ability to shorten when an adequate stimulus is recieved
iii. Extensibility—ability of muscle cells to be stretched
iv. Elasticity—ability to recoil and resume resting length after stretching
2. Skeletal muscle
a. Characteristics
i. Most are attached by tendons to bones
ii. Cells are multinucleate
iii. Striations—have visible banding (straight lines)
iv. Control—voluntary (subject to conscious control
b. Connective tissue wrappings:
i. Endomysium –encloses a single muscle fiber
ii. Epimysium—covers the entire skeletal muscle
iii. Perimysium—wraps around a fascicle (bundle) of muscle fibers
iv. Fascia—on the outside of the epimysium
v. Tendon—cord-like structures
1. When epimysium blends into a connective tissue attachment.
2. Epimysium is a wrapping that extends into a tendon
3. Mostly collagen fibers
4. Often cross a joint due to toughness and small size
vi. Aponeurosis—sheet-like structures
1. Attach muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages, or connective tissue coverings
c. Where skeletal muscles attach:
i. Bones
ii. Cartilages
iii. Connective Tissue coverings
3. Smooth muscles
a. Characteristics
i. Lacks striations
ii. Spindle-shaped cells
iii. Single Nucleus
iv. Control: involuntary—no conscious control
v. Where: found mainly in the walls of hollow organs
4. Cardiac muscles
a. Characteristics
i. Striations
ii. Usually single Nucleus
iii. Branching Cells
iv. Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc
v. Control: involuntary
vi. Where: only in the heart
5. Physiology of skeletal muscle
a. Muscle functions
i. Produce movement
ii. Maintain posture
iii. Stabilize joints
iv. Generate heat (movement)
b. Microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle
i. Sarcolemma—specialized plasma membrane
ii. Myofibrils—long organelles inside muscle cell
iii. Sarcoplasmic reticulum—specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
c. Myofibrils are aligned to give distinct bands
i. Sarcomere – functional unit of classification
1. Myofilaments
a. Myosin = thick filaments
b. Actin = thin filaments
2. Striations = patterns of cross stripes (Fig 6.3)
a. A band = dark band
i. Contains the entire length of the thick filaments
b. I band = light band
i. Contains only thin filaments
c. Z line
d. H zone
e. M line
ii. Ultrastructure and chemical composition of myofilaments (Fig. 6.7)
1. Myosin
a. Two heads
i. Actin binding site
ii. ATP binding site and ATPase
b. One tail
2. Thin filaments = actin + tropomyosin + troponin
a. Two strands of G-actin twisted
b. Two strands of tropomyosin
c. Troponin covers binding sites
iii. Sarcoplasmic reticulum – transmits calcium to myoplasm when stimulated
d. Generation of action potential across sarcolemma
i. Action potential defined -
ii. Resting potential
iii. Depolarization
iv. Repolarization
6. Contraction of skeletal muscle fiber
a. Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
b. Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be stimulated during the same interval
c. Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions may give differing responses
d. The neuromuscular junction (Fig. 6.5)
e. The nerve stimulus and action potential
i. The motor unit (Fig. 6.4)
f. From nerve impulse to muscle contraction
i. Neurotransmitters –
ii. Acetylcholine (Ach) -
g. The Sliding Filament Theory of muscle contraction
7. Physiology of skeletal muscle contraction
a. Characteristics
i. “All or none”
ii. Stimulated fibers
iii. Combinations of fibers
iv. Graded responses—different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening
1. Can be produced by changing:
2. The frequency of muscle stimulation
3. The number of muscle cells being stimulated at one time
b. Types of graded responses
i. Twitch – a single, brief contraction
1. Not a normal muscle function
2. Stimulus, latent period, contraction, relaxation
3. Incomplete and complete tetanus
ii. Summation –
1. Incomplete (treppe)
2. Fused
iii. Tetanus
1. One contraction immediately followed by another
2. The muscle does not completely return to resting state
3. The effects are added
iv. Unfused (Incomplete) tetanus
1. Some relaxation occurs between contractions
2. The results are summed
v. Fused (complete) tetanus
1. No evidence of relaxation before the following contractions
2. The result is a sustained muscle contraction
vi. Muscle response to strong stimuli
1. Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers stimulated
2. More fibers contracting results inu greater muscle tension
3. Muscles can continue to contract unless they run out of energy
c. Energy for muscle contraction
i. Initially muscles used stored ATP for energy:
1. ATP bonds are broken to release energy
2. Only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by muscles
ii. After initial time, other pathways must be utilized to produced ATP
iii. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP):
1. Muscle cells stored CP
a. CP is a high-energy molecule
2. After ATP (high energy) is depleted, ADP (low energy) is left
3. CP Transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP
4. CP supplies are exhausted in less than 15 seconds
iv. Aerobic respiration:
1. Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy (ATP)
2. This is a slower reaction that requires continuous oxygen
3. A series of metabolic pathways in the mitochondria
v. Anaerobic respiration/lactic acid formation
1. Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
2. When glucose is broken down only limited ATP is produced
3. This reaction is not as efficient, but is fast
4. Lactic acid produces muscle fatigue
vi. Muscle fatigue/oxygen debt
1. When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to contract even with a stimulus
2. Common cause for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt:
3. Oxygen must be “repaid” to tissue to remove oxygen deficit (heavy breathing)
4. Oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated lactic acid
5. Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of ATP causes the muscle to contract less
vii. Isotonic contractions:
1. Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during contractions
2. The muscle shortens and movement occurs
viii. Isometric contractions:
1. Tension in the muscles increases
2. The muscle is unable to shorten or produce movement
ix. Muscle tone
1. Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed muscle
2. Different fibers contract at different times to provide muscle tone
3. What is rigor mortis?
a. Muscles stiffen 3-4 hours after death, dissipates in 48-72 hours as muscle fibers begin to decompose
b. Due to cross bridge formation, but no ATP synthesis to release the bridges
x. Effect of exercise on muscles
1. Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance:
2. Low resistance (aerobic)
a. Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging):
i. Stronger, more flexible muscles, greater resistance to fatigue:
b. Makes body metabolism more efficent
3. Resistance (isometric) exercise (weight lifting) increases muscle size and strength
4. High resistance (anaerobic)
d. Velocity and duration of contraction
i. Muscle fiber type
1. Slow oxidative fibers – dark meat
2. Fast oxidative fibers – white meat
8. Muscles and body movement
a. Movement is attained due to a muscle moving an attached bone
b. Five golden rules of skeletal muscle activity – Table 6.2
c. Muscle attachments
Muscles are attached to atleast two points:
i. Origin – anchored end of muscle, doesn’t move
1. Attachment to an immovable bone
ii. Insertion – anchored end of muscle that does move
1. Attachment to a movable bone
iii. Action – describes the movement of the muscle (ie. Extensor)
d. Types of body movement
i. Flexion & extension
1. Flexion
a. Decreases the angle of the joint
b. Brings two bones closer together
c. Typical of hinge joints like knee and elbow
2. Extension
a. Increases angle between two bones
3. Hyperextension
a. Increasing angle beyond 180 degrees
ii. Rotation
1. Movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis
2. Common in ball-and-socket joints
3. Example is when you move atlas around the dens of axis (shake your head ”no”)
iii. Abduction & adduction
1. Abduction
a. Movement of a limb away from the midline
2. Adduction
a. Opposite of abduction
b. Movement of a limb toward the midline
iv. Circumduction
1. Combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction: swing with one end free and one end stable
2. Common in ball-and-socket joints
v. Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion
1. Dorsiflexion
a. Lifting the foot so that the superior surface approaches the shin
2. Plantar flexion
a. Depressing the foot (pointing the toes)
vi. Inversion & eversion
1. Inversion
a. Turn sole of foot medially
2. Eversion
a. Turn sole of foot laterally
vii. Supination & pronation
1. Supination
a. Forearm rotates laterally so palm faces anteriorly
2. Pronation
a. Forearm rotates medially so palm faces posteriorly
viii. Special Movements
1. Opposition
a. Move thumb to touch the tips of other fingers on the same hand
2. Protraction
a. Sticking out head or parts of face
3. Retraction
a. Pulling in head or parts of face
e. Types of muscle movement
1. Prime mover = agonists
a. Muscle with the major responsibility for a certain movement
2. Antagonist
a. Muscle that opposes or reverses a prime mover
3. Synergist
a. Muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps prevent rotation
4. Fixator
a. Stabilizes the origin of a prime mover (hold a bone still), back muscles for posture
f. Naming skeletal muscles
i. Location
1. Example
a. Temporalis (temporal bone)
ii. By number of origins
1. Examples
a. Triceps (three heads)
iii. By location of the muscle’s origin and insertion
1. Example
a. Sterno (on the sternum)
iv. Shape of muscle
1. Deltoid (triangular)
2. Trapezius
3. Serratus
4. Rhomboid
v. Relative size
1. Maximus
2. Minimus
3. Longus
4. Brevis
vi. By action of the muscle
1. Example
a. Flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)
vii. Direction of muscle fibers
1. Rectus
2. Transverses
3. Oblique
g. Number of origins
i. Bi
ii. Tri
iii. Quad
h. Location of attachments
i. Origin – anchored end of muscle, doesn’t move
ii. Insertion – anchored end of muscle that does move
i. Action – describes the movement of the muscle (ie. Extensor)
9. Major skeletal muscles of the body & prime action
a. Muscles of the head
i. Muscles of the scalp
1. Frontalis
2. Occipitalis
ii. Muscles of the face
1. Orbicularis oculi
2. Zygomaticus major
3. Levator labii superioris
4. Orbicularis oris
b. Muscles of mastication (chewing)
i. Masseter
ii. Temporalis
c. Muscles of the neck
i. Sternocleidomastoid
d. Muscles of the thorax/breathing
i. External intercostals
ii. Internal intercostals
iii. Diaphragm
e. Muscles of the abdominal wall
i. Rectus abdominis
ii. Transverse abdominis
iii. External oblique
iv. Internal oblique
f. Muscles of anterior thorax/ moving scapulae
i. Serratus anterior
g. Muscles of posterior thorax
i. Trapezius
ii. Levator scapulae
iii. Rhomboid major and minor
h. Muscles crossing the shoulder (arm movement)
i. Pectoralis major
ii. Latissimus dorsi
iii. Deltoid
iv. Rotator cuff = supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis
i. Muscles crossing the elbow (flexion & extension of forearm)
i. Triceps brachii
ii. Biceps brachii
iii. Brachioradialis
j. Muscles moving wrist and hand
i. Flexor carpi radialis
ii. Flexor carpi ulnaris
iii. Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis
k. Muscles crossing hip & knee joint (movement of thigh & leg)
i. Sartorius
ii. Gracilis
iii. Quadriceps femoris
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vastus medialis
3. Vastus intermedius
4. Vastus lateralis
iv. Gluteus maximus
v. Hamstrings (posterior thigh muscles)
1. Biceps femoris
2. Semimembranosus
3. Semitendinosus
l. Muscles of the leg
i. Tibialis anterior
ii. Gastrocnemius
iii. Soleus
Chapter 5 Outline
Bones and Skeletal Tissue
1) Parts of the skeletal system
a) Bones (skeleton)
b) Joints
c) Cartilage
d) Ligaments (connect bone to bone)
e) Subdivisions of the skeleton
i) Axial – central “core”
ii) Appendicular – parts that stick out
2) Functions of the bones
a) Support the body
b) Protect soft organs
c) Allow movement due to attachment to skeletal muscles
d) Store minerals and fats
e) Blood cell formation
3) Bones of the human body
a) Adult skeleton – has 206 bones
b) Two basic types of bone tissue
i) Compact bone
• Homogeneous
ii) Spongy bone
• Small needle-like pieces of bone
• Many open spaces
4) Classification of bones by shape
a) Long bones:
i) Typically longer than they are wide
ii) Have a shaft with heads at both ends
iii) Contain mostly compact bone
iv) Examples:
• Femur
• Humerous
b) Short bones:
i) Generally cube-shaped
ii) Contain mostly spongy bone
iii) Examples:
• Carpals
• Tarsals
c) Flat bones:
i) Thin, flattened, and usually curved
ii) Two thin layers of compact bone surround a layer of spongy bone
iii) Examples:
• Skull
• Ribs
• Sternum
d) Irregular bones:
i) Irregular shape
ii) Do not fit into other bone classification categories
iii) Examples:
• Vertebrae
• Hip Bones
5) Anatomy of long bones
a) Diaphysis – shaft
i) Composed of compact bone
b) Epiphysis – knobby ends
i) Ends of the bone
ii) Composed mostly of spongy bone
c) Diaphysis features:
i) Periosteum
• Outside covering of the diaphysis
• Fibrous connective tissue membrane
ii) Sharpey’s fibers
• Secure periosteum to underlying bone
iii) Arteries & veins
• Supply bone cells with nutrients
iv) Medullary cavity
• Cavity inside of the shaft
• Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
• Contains red marrow (for blood cells formation) in infants
d) Epiphysis features
i) Articular cartilage
• Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
• Made of hyaline cartilage
• Decreases friction at joint surfaces
ii) Epiphyseal plate
• Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone
iii) Epiphyseal line
• Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
• Seen in adult bones
6) Bone markings
a) Surface features
i) Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
ii) Passages for nerves and blood vessels
b) Categories of bone markings
i) Projections or processes – grow out from the bone surface
ii) Depressions or cavities - indentations
iii) Table 5.1
7) Microscopic anatomy of bones
a) Osteon = Haversian system:
i) A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix rings
b) Central = Haversian canal:
i) Opening in center of an osteon
ii) Carries blood vessels and nerves
c) Perforating = Volkman’s canal:
i) Canal perpendicular to the central canal
ii) Carries blood vessels and nerves
d) Lacunae: concentric rings
i) Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
ii) Arranged in concentric rings
e) Lamellae: sites of lacunae
i) Rings around the central canal
f) Canaliculi: tiny canals from central canal from lacunae
i) Tiny canals
ii) Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
iii) Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a nutrient supply
8) Formation of human skeleton
a) In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
b) During development, much of this cartilage is replace by bone
c) Cartilage remaining in isolated areas:
i) Bridge of the nose
ii) Parts of the ribs
iii) Joints
9) Bone growth (Ossification)
a) Epiphyseal plates allow for lengthwise growth of long bones during childhood
b) Lengthwise growth from epiphyseal plates
i) New cartilage is continuously formed
ii) Older cartilage becomes ossified:
• Cartilage is broken down
• Enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a medullary cavity.
• Bone replaces cartilage through the action of osteoblasts
c) Bone remodeling
i) Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
ii) Bones are remodeled in response to two factors:
• Blood calcium levels
• Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
d) Appositional growth = growth in width
10) Types of bone cells
a) Osteocytes
b) Osteoblasts
c) Osteoclasts
11) Bone fractures
a) Types
i) Closed
ii) Open
b) Treatment
c) Table 5.2
d) Repair
i) Hematoma
ii) Fibrocartilage
iii) Bony callus
12) Axial skeleton – longitudinal axis of body
a) Skull
i) Cranium
ii) Facial bones
iii) Sutures
iv) Mandible
v) Bones of the skull
vi) Paranasal sinuses
• Functions
vii) Hyoid bone
13) Fetal skeleton
a) Skull proportions
i) Fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s total body length
b) Fontanel – cartilage between cranial bones
c) Allows the brain to grow
d) Convert to bone within 24 months after birth
e) Allow skull to “squeeze” during birth
14) Vertebral column: 24 vertebrae separated by discs
a) Each vertebrae is given a name according to it’s location
b) There are 24 single vertebral bones separated by intervertebral discs
c) Typical vertebrae structures
d) Cervical = neck
i) Atlas
ii) Axis
iii) Seven cervical vertebrae are in neck
• C2 – C7
e) Thoracic = chest
i) Twelve thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
f) Lumbar = lower back
i) Five lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back
g) Composite vertebrae
i) Nine vertebrae fuse to form two composite bones:
• Sacrum
• Coccyx
h) Curvatures
The spine has a normal curvature:
i) Primary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions
• Present from birth
ii) Secondary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions
• Develop after birth
iii) Abnormalities
• Scoliosis
• Lordosis
• Kyphosis
i) Bony thorax
i) Sternum
ii) Costal cartilage
iii) Ribs
• True
• False
• Floating
iv) Vertebrae – facets for ribs
15) Appendicular skeleton – 126 bones
a) Limbs (appendages)
i) Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
• Composed of two bones:
(a) Clavicle (collarbone)
(b) Scapula (shoulder blade)
(c) These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement, but somewhat less support
• Freedom of movement
ii) Upper limbs
• Humerus
(a) Forms the arm (upper arm)
(b) Single bone
• The forearm has two bones:
(a) Ulna- medial bone in anatomical position
(b) Radius – lateral bone in anatomical position
(i) Hand
1. Carpals-little bones in wrist (8)
a. Proximal distal then medial lateral: Some Lefties Try Positions ThatThey Can’t Handle
2. Metacarpals – palm (long bones)
3. Phalanges (phalanyx)- fingers (digits):
a. #1 (thumb) to #5 (pinky)
b. Bones: proximal, medial, distal
b) Pelvic (hips) girdle =formed by 2 coxal (ossa, coxae) bones
i) Total weight of upper body rests on the belvis
ii) Protects several organs:
• Reproducative organs
• Urinary bladder
• Part of the large intestine
iii) Each coxal bone made of three fused bones:
• Illium
• Ischium
• Pubis
iv) Gender differences: Compared to the male, the female pelvis:
• Inlet
(a) Female inlet is larger and more circular
• Pelvis as a whole
(a) Female pelvis (as a whole) is shallower, and the bones are lighter and thinner
• Ilia
(a) Female ilia flare more laterally
• Sacrum
(a) Female sacrum is shorter and less curved
• Ischial spines
(a) Female ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; thus the outlet is larger
• Pubic arch
(a) The female pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of the pubic arch is greater
c) Lower limbs
i) Upper leg
• The thigh has one bone: Femur
• The heaviest, strongest bone in the body
ii) Lower leg
• Has two bones:
(a) Tibia
(i) Shinbone
(ii) Larger and medially oriented
(b) Fibula
(i) Thin and sticklike
(ii) Lateral to the tibia
iii) Foot
• Tarsals
(a) Two largest tarsals
(i) Calcaneus (heelbone)
(ii) Talus
• Metatarsals-sole
• Phalanges-toes
(a) #1-5
(b) Bones: proximal, medial, distal
• Three arches of the foot
(a) Two longitudinal
(b) One transverse
16) Joints = articulations of bones
a) Functions of joints :
i) Hold bones together
ii) Allow for mobility
b) Ways they are classified – Table 5.3
i) Functional classifications
• Synarthroses
(a) Immovable joints
• Amphiarthroses
(a) Slightly moveable joints
• Diarthroses
(a) Freely moveable joints
ii) Structural classifications
• Fibrous joints
(a) Generally immovable
(b) Bones united by fibrous tissue
(c) Example:
(i) Sutures in skull
(ii) Syndesmoses
1. Allows more movement that sutures
2. Example: Distal end of tibia and fibula
• Cartilagaenous joints
(a) Immovable or slightly moveable
(b) Bones connected by cartilage
(c) Example:
(i) Pubic symphysis
(ii) Intervertebral joints
(d) Pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints
• Synovial
(a) Freely moveable
(b) Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
(c) Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
(d) Features
(i) Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends of bones
(ii) A fibrous articular capsule encloses joint surfaces
(iii) A joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid
(iv) Ligaments reinforce the joint
(e) Structures
(i) Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs:
1. Lined with synovial membranes
2. Filled with synovial fluid
3. Not actually part of the joint
(ii) Tendon sheath
1. Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
(f) Types – depend on type of movement allowed
c) Inflammatory conditions
i) Bursitis—inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or friction
ii) Tendonitis—inflammation of tendon sheaths
iii) Arthritis—inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints:
• Over 100 different types
• The most widespread crippling disease in the United States
• Clinical Forms of Arthritis:
(a) Osteoarthritis
(i) Most common chronic arthritis
(ii) Probably related to normal aging processes
• Rheumatoid arthritis
(a) An autoimmune disease—the immune system attack the joints
(b) Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints
(c) Often leads to deformities
• Gouty:
(a) Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of uric acid crystals from the blood
(b) Can usually be controlled with diet
d) Skeletal changes throughout life
i) Fetus:
• Long bones are formed of hyaline cartilage
ii) Osteoporosis
iii) Posture
1) Parts of the skeletal system
a) Bones (skeleton)
b) Joints
c) Cartilage
d) Ligaments (connect bone to bone)
e) Subdivisions of the skeleton
i) Axial – central “core”
ii) Appendicular – parts that stick out
2) Functions of the bones
a) Support the body
b) Protect soft organs
c) Allow movement due to attachment to skeletal muscles
d) Store minerals and fats
e) Blood cell formation
3) Bones of the human body
a) Adult skeleton – has 206 bones
b) Two basic types of bone tissue
i) Compact bone
• Homogeneous
ii) Spongy bone
• Small needle-like pieces of bone
• Many open spaces
4) Classification of bones by shape
a) Long bones:
i) Typically longer than they are wide
ii) Have a shaft with heads at both ends
iii) Contain mostly compact bone
iv) Examples:
• Femur
• Humerous
b) Short bones:
i) Generally cube-shaped
ii) Contain mostly spongy bone
iii) Examples:
• Carpals
• Tarsals
c) Flat bones:
i) Thin, flattened, and usually curved
ii) Two thin layers of compact bone surround a layer of spongy bone
iii) Examples:
• Skull
• Ribs
• Sternum
d) Irregular bones:
i) Irregular shape
ii) Do not fit into other bone classification categories
iii) Examples:
• Vertebrae
• Hip Bones
5) Anatomy of long bones
a) Diaphysis – shaft
i) Composed of compact bone
b) Epiphysis – knobby ends
i) Ends of the bone
ii) Composed mostly of spongy bone
c) Diaphysis features:
i) Periosteum
• Outside covering of the diaphysis
• Fibrous connective tissue membrane
ii) Sharpey’s fibers
• Secure periosteum to underlying bone
iii) Arteries & veins
• Supply bone cells with nutrients
iv) Medullary cavity
• Cavity inside of the shaft
• Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
• Contains red marrow (for blood cells formation) in infants
d) Epiphysis features
i) Articular cartilage
• Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
• Made of hyaline cartilage
• Decreases friction at joint surfaces
ii) Epiphyseal plate
• Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone
iii) Epiphyseal line
• Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
• Seen in adult bones
6) Bone markings
a) Surface features
i) Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
ii) Passages for nerves and blood vessels
b) Categories of bone markings
i) Projections or processes – grow out from the bone surface
ii) Depressions or cavities - indentations
iii) Table 5.1
7) Microscopic anatomy of bones
a) Osteon = Haversian system:
i) A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix rings
b) Central = Haversian canal:
i) Opening in center of an osteon
ii) Carries blood vessels and nerves
c) Perforating = Volkman’s canal:
i) Canal perpendicular to the central canal
ii) Carries blood vessels and nerves
d) Lacunae: concentric rings
i) Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
ii) Arranged in concentric rings
e) Lamellae: sites of lacunae
i) Rings around the central canal
f) Canaliculi: tiny canals from central canal from lacunae
i) Tiny canals
ii) Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
iii) Form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a nutrient supply
8) Formation of human skeleton
a) In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
b) During development, much of this cartilage is replace by bone
c) Cartilage remaining in isolated areas:
i) Bridge of the nose
ii) Parts of the ribs
iii) Joints
9) Bone growth (Ossification)
a) Epiphyseal plates allow for lengthwise growth of long bones during childhood
b) Lengthwise growth from epiphyseal plates
i) New cartilage is continuously formed
ii) Older cartilage becomes ossified:
• Cartilage is broken down
• Enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a medullary cavity.
• Bone replaces cartilage through the action of osteoblasts
c) Bone remodeling
i) Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
ii) Bones are remodeled in response to two factors:
• Blood calcium levels
• Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
d) Appositional growth = growth in width
10) Types of bone cells
a) Osteocytes
b) Osteoblasts
c) Osteoclasts
11) Bone fractures
a) Types
i) Closed
ii) Open
b) Treatment
c) Table 5.2
d) Repair
i) Hematoma
ii) Fibrocartilage
iii) Bony callus
12) Axial skeleton – longitudinal axis of body
a) Skull
i) Cranium
ii) Facial bones
iii) Sutures
iv) Mandible
v) Bones of the skull
vi) Paranasal sinuses
• Functions
vii) Hyoid bone
13) Fetal skeleton
a) Skull proportions
i) Fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s total body length
b) Fontanel – cartilage between cranial bones
c) Allows the brain to grow
d) Convert to bone within 24 months after birth
e) Allow skull to “squeeze” during birth
14) Vertebral column: 24 vertebrae separated by discs
a) Each vertebrae is given a name according to it’s location
b) There are 24 single vertebral bones separated by intervertebral discs
c) Typical vertebrae structures
d) Cervical = neck
i) Atlas
ii) Axis
iii) Seven cervical vertebrae are in neck
• C2 – C7
e) Thoracic = chest
i) Twelve thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region
f) Lumbar = lower back
i) Five lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back
g) Composite vertebrae
i) Nine vertebrae fuse to form two composite bones:
• Sacrum
• Coccyx
h) Curvatures
The spine has a normal curvature:
i) Primary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions
• Present from birth
ii) Secondary curvatures are the spinal curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions
• Develop after birth
iii) Abnormalities
• Scoliosis
• Lordosis
• Kyphosis
i) Bony thorax
i) Sternum
ii) Costal cartilage
iii) Ribs
• True
• False
• Floating
iv) Vertebrae – facets for ribs
15) Appendicular skeleton – 126 bones
a) Limbs (appendages)
i) Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
• Composed of two bones:
(a) Clavicle (collarbone)
(b) Scapula (shoulder blade)
(c) These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement, but somewhat less support
• Freedom of movement
ii) Upper limbs
• Humerus
(a) Forms the arm (upper arm)
(b) Single bone
• The forearm has two bones:
(a) Ulna- medial bone in anatomical position
(b) Radius – lateral bone in anatomical position
(i) Hand
1. Carpals-little bones in wrist (8)
a. Proximal distal then medial lateral: Some Lefties Try Positions ThatThey Can’t Handle
2. Metacarpals – palm (long bones)
3. Phalanges (phalanyx)- fingers (digits):
a. #1 (thumb) to #5 (pinky)
b. Bones: proximal, medial, distal
b) Pelvic (hips) girdle =formed by 2 coxal (ossa, coxae) bones
i) Total weight of upper body rests on the belvis
ii) Protects several organs:
• Reproducative organs
• Urinary bladder
• Part of the large intestine
iii) Each coxal bone made of three fused bones:
• Illium
• Ischium
• Pubis
iv) Gender differences: Compared to the male, the female pelvis:
• Inlet
(a) Female inlet is larger and more circular
• Pelvis as a whole
(a) Female pelvis (as a whole) is shallower, and the bones are lighter and thinner
• Ilia
(a) Female ilia flare more laterally
• Sacrum
(a) Female sacrum is shorter and less curved
• Ischial spines
(a) Female ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; thus the outlet is larger
• Pubic arch
(a) The female pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of the pubic arch is greater
c) Lower limbs
i) Upper leg
• The thigh has one bone: Femur
• The heaviest, strongest bone in the body
ii) Lower leg
• Has two bones:
(a) Tibia
(i) Shinbone
(ii) Larger and medially oriented
(b) Fibula
(i) Thin and sticklike
(ii) Lateral to the tibia
iii) Foot
• Tarsals
(a) Two largest tarsals
(i) Calcaneus (heelbone)
(ii) Talus
• Metatarsals-sole
• Phalanges-toes
(a) #1-5
(b) Bones: proximal, medial, distal
• Three arches of the foot
(a) Two longitudinal
(b) One transverse
16) Joints = articulations of bones
a) Functions of joints :
i) Hold bones together
ii) Allow for mobility
b) Ways they are classified – Table 5.3
i) Functional classifications
• Synarthroses
(a) Immovable joints
• Amphiarthroses
(a) Slightly moveable joints
• Diarthroses
(a) Freely moveable joints
ii) Structural classifications
• Fibrous joints
(a) Generally immovable
(b) Bones united by fibrous tissue
(c) Example:
(i) Sutures in skull
(ii) Syndesmoses
1. Allows more movement that sutures
2. Example: Distal end of tibia and fibula
• Cartilagaenous joints
(a) Immovable or slightly moveable
(b) Bones connected by cartilage
(c) Example:
(i) Pubic symphysis
(ii) Intervertebral joints
(d) Pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints
• Synovial
(a) Freely moveable
(b) Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
(c) Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
(d) Features
(i) Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends of bones
(ii) A fibrous articular capsule encloses joint surfaces
(iii) A joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid
(iv) Ligaments reinforce the joint
(e) Structures
(i) Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs:
1. Lined with synovial membranes
2. Filled with synovial fluid
3. Not actually part of the joint
(ii) Tendon sheath
1. Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
(f) Types – depend on type of movement allowed
c) Inflammatory conditions
i) Bursitis—inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or friction
ii) Tendonitis—inflammation of tendon sheaths
iii) Arthritis—inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints:
• Over 100 different types
• The most widespread crippling disease in the United States
• Clinical Forms of Arthritis:
(a) Osteoarthritis
(i) Most common chronic arthritis
(ii) Probably related to normal aging processes
• Rheumatoid arthritis
(a) An autoimmune disease—the immune system attack the joints
(b) Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints
(c) Often leads to deformities
• Gouty:
(a) Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of uric acid crystals from the blood
(b) Can usually be controlled with diet
d) Skeletal changes throughout life
i) Fetus:
• Long bones are formed of hyaline cartilage
ii) Osteoporosis
iii) Posture
Chapter 4 Outline
Chapter 4. The Integumentary System & Body Membranes
1) Body Membranes
a) Functions:
i) Covers body surfaces
ii) Lines body cavities
iii) Forms protective sheets around organs
b) Classification
i) Epithelial membranes:
• Cutaneous
• Mucous
• Serous
ii) Connective tissue:
• Synovial membranes – joint cavities
c) Cutaneous = skin
i) Dry membrane
ii) Outermost protective boundary
iii) Superficial epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
iv) Underlying dermis is mostly dense connective tissue
d) Mucous = digestive & respiratory interior surfaces
i) Surface epithelium type depends on site:
ii) Stratified squamous epithelium (mouth, esophagus)
iii) Simple columnar epithelium (rest of digestive tract)
iv) Underlying loose connective tissue
v) Lines all body cavities that open to the exterior body surface (digestive & respiratory sytems)
vi) Often adapted for absorption or secretion
e) Serous – internal: visceral & parietal
i) Surface is a layer of simple squamous epithelium
ii) Underlying layer is a thin layer of areolar connective tissue
iii) Lines open body cavities that are closed to the exterior of the body
iv) Serious membranes occur in pairs separated by serous fluid:
• Visceral layer covers the outside of the organ
Peritoneum (abdominal)
Pleura (lungs)
Pericardium (heart)
• parietal layer lines a portion of the wall of ventral body cavity
Peritoneum (abdominal)
Pleura (lungs)
Pericardium (heart)
f) Synovial – connective tissue only
i) Lines fibrous capsules surrounding joints
ii) Secretes a lubricating fluid
2) The Integumentary System
a) Skin (or cutaneous membrane) and derivatives
b) Skin derivatives:
i) Sweat glands
ii) Oil glands
iii) Hair
iv) Nails
c) Structure of the Integumentary System
i) Epidermis – outer layer
• Stratified squamous epithelium
• Often keratinized (hardened by keratin)
ii) Dermis
• Dense connective tissue (mainly collagen)
• Blisters develop between E and D
iii) Hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue) is deep to dermis:
• Not part of skin
• Anchors skin to underlying organs
• Composed mostly of adipose tissue
iv) Strata or layers of the epidermis (See Fig. 4.3)
Stratum basale (germinating layer)
Deepest layer of epidermis
Lies next to dermis
Cells undergoing mitosis
Daughter cells are pushed upward to become the more superficial layers
Stratum spinosum (prickly layer) – becoming more squamous
Stratum granulosum (granular layer) – becoming imbedded with keratin
Stratum lucidum (clear layer)
Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata
Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms of hands and soles of the feet
Stratum corneum (horny layer)
Outermost layer of epidermis, ¾ of it’s thickness
Shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin (protective protein prevents water loss from skin)
v) Melanin
• Pigment (melanin) produced by melanocytes
• Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale
• Color is yellow to brown to black
• Amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics and exposure to sunlight
Albino = no melanin
vi) The Dermis (See Fig. 4.4)
• Characteristics
• Layers of the dermis
Papillary layer (upper demal region)
Projections called Dermal papillae
1. Some contain capillary loops
2. Other house pain receptors and touch receptors
Reticular layer (deepest skin layer)
Blood vessels
Sweat and oil glands
Deep pressure receptors
• Collagen & elastic
Located throughout dermis
Collagen = toughness
Elastic = elasticity
• Blood vessels play a role in body temperature regulation
vii) Hypodermis
3) Skin Color
a) Pigments
i) Melanin
• Yellow, brown, or black pigments
ii) Carotene
• Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
iii) Hemoglobin
• Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries
• Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring
4) Appendages (something that sticks out) of the skin
a) Glands (See Fig. 4.6)
i) Sebaceous or oil glands
• Lubricant for skin
• Prevents brittle hair
• Kills bacteria
• Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles; mother open directly into skin surface
• Glands are activated at puberty
• Sebum
ii) Sweat glands: produces sweat, located all over body
Odor is from breakdown by associated bacteria
• Composition
Mostly water
Salts and vitamin C
Some metabolic waste
Fatty acids and proteins (apocrine only)
• Function
Helps dissipate excess heat
Excretes waste products
Acidic nature inhibits bacteria growth
• Two types:
Eccrine
Open via duct to pore on skin surface
All over body, produce sweat
Apocrine
Ducts empty into hair follicles
Axillary & genital areas, mysterious
• Ceruminous glands
• Mammary glands
b) Nails (See Fig. 4.9)
- Scale-like modifications of the epidermis (heavily keratinized)
- Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed (responsible for growth)
- Lack of pigment makes them colorless
i) Nail structures:
• Free edge
Body is the visible attached portion
Root of nail embedded in skin
Cuticle is the proximal nail fold that projects onto the nail body
ii) Nail bed
iii) Nail matrix
iv) Nail folds
c) Hair (See Fig. 4.7)
- Produced by hair follicle
- Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
- Melanocytes provides pigment for hair color
i) Hair anatomy:
• Central medulla
• Cortex surrounds medulla
• Cuticle on outside of cortex
Most heavily keratinized
ii) Structure
• Follicle
Dermal and epidermal sheath surrounds hair root
• Root
• Shaft
iii) Arrector pili muscle
• Smooth muscle
• Pulls hair upright when cold or frightened
iv) Concentric layers
• Medulla
• Cortex
• Cuticle
v) Hair follicle (See Fig. 5.5)
• Hair bulb
• Root hair plexus
• Hair papilla
• Hair mat
vi) Hair thinning and baldness – genetic trait
5) Infections
a) Athlete’s foot (tinea pedis)
i) Caused by fungal infection
b) Boils & carbuncles
i) Caused by bacterial infection
c) Cold sores
i) Caused by virus
d) Contact dermatitis
i) Exposures cause allergic reaction
e) Impetigo
i) Caused by bacterial infection
f) Psoriasis
i) Cause is unknown…autoimmune?
ii) Triggered by trauma, infection, stress
6) Burns – tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV radiation, or chemicals
a) Associated dangers:
i) dehydration
ii) electrolyte imbalance
iii) circulatory shock
b) Rule of nines – way to determine the extent of burns
i) Body is divides into 11 areas for quick estimation
ii) Each area represents about 9% of total body surface area
c) Classification of burns
i) First degree
• Only epidermis is damaged
• Skin is red and swollen
ii) Second degree
• Epidermis and upper dermis are damaged
• Skin is red with blisters
iii) Third degree
• Destroys entire skin layer
• Burn is gray=white or black
iv) Fourth degree
v) Critical Burns
• Burns are considered critical if:
Over 25% of body has second-degree burns
Over 10% of the body has third-degree burns
There are third-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet
7) Skin cancer
a) Caner - Abnormal cell mass
b) Classified two ways:
i) Benign
• does not spread (encapsulated)
ii) Malignant
• Metastasized (moves) to other parts of the body
c) Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer
d) Types
i) Basal cell carcinoma
• Least malignant (dangerous)
• Most common type
• Arises from stratum basale
ii) Squamous cell carcinoma:
• Metastasized to lymph nodes if not removed
• Early removal allows a good chance of cure
• Believed to be sun-induced
• Arises from stratum spinosum
iii) Melanoma
• Malignant melanoma:
Most deadly of skin cancers
Cancer of melanocytes
Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels
Detection uses ABCD rule
e) ABCD rule
i) A = asymmetry
• Two sides of pigmented mole do not match
ii) B = border irregularity
• Borders of mole are not smooth
iii) C = color
• Different colors in pigmented area
iv) D = diameter
• Spot is larger than 6mm in diameter
1) Body Membranes
a) Functions:
i) Covers body surfaces
ii) Lines body cavities
iii) Forms protective sheets around organs
b) Classification
i) Epithelial membranes:
• Cutaneous
• Mucous
• Serous
ii) Connective tissue:
• Synovial membranes – joint cavities
c) Cutaneous = skin
i) Dry membrane
ii) Outermost protective boundary
iii) Superficial epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
iv) Underlying dermis is mostly dense connective tissue
d) Mucous = digestive & respiratory interior surfaces
i) Surface epithelium type depends on site:
ii) Stratified squamous epithelium (mouth, esophagus)
iii) Simple columnar epithelium (rest of digestive tract)
iv) Underlying loose connective tissue
v) Lines all body cavities that open to the exterior body surface (digestive & respiratory sytems)
vi) Often adapted for absorption or secretion
e) Serous – internal: visceral & parietal
i) Surface is a layer of simple squamous epithelium
ii) Underlying layer is a thin layer of areolar connective tissue
iii) Lines open body cavities that are closed to the exterior of the body
iv) Serious membranes occur in pairs separated by serous fluid:
• Visceral layer covers the outside of the organ
Peritoneum (abdominal)
Pleura (lungs)
Pericardium (heart)
• parietal layer lines a portion of the wall of ventral body cavity
Peritoneum (abdominal)
Pleura (lungs)
Pericardium (heart)
f) Synovial – connective tissue only
i) Lines fibrous capsules surrounding joints
ii) Secretes a lubricating fluid
2) The Integumentary System
a) Skin (or cutaneous membrane) and derivatives
b) Skin derivatives:
i) Sweat glands
ii) Oil glands
iii) Hair
iv) Nails
c) Structure of the Integumentary System
i) Epidermis – outer layer
• Stratified squamous epithelium
• Often keratinized (hardened by keratin)
ii) Dermis
• Dense connective tissue (mainly collagen)
• Blisters develop between E and D
iii) Hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue) is deep to dermis:
• Not part of skin
• Anchors skin to underlying organs
• Composed mostly of adipose tissue
iv) Strata or layers of the epidermis (See Fig. 4.3)
Stratum basale (germinating layer)
Deepest layer of epidermis
Lies next to dermis
Cells undergoing mitosis
Daughter cells are pushed upward to become the more superficial layers
Stratum spinosum (prickly layer) – becoming more squamous
Stratum granulosum (granular layer) – becoming imbedded with keratin
Stratum lucidum (clear layer)
Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata
Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms of hands and soles of the feet
Stratum corneum (horny layer)
Outermost layer of epidermis, ¾ of it’s thickness
Shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin (protective protein prevents water loss from skin)
v) Melanin
• Pigment (melanin) produced by melanocytes
• Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale
• Color is yellow to brown to black
• Amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics and exposure to sunlight
Albino = no melanin
vi) The Dermis (See Fig. 4.4)
• Characteristics
• Layers of the dermis
Papillary layer (upper demal region)
Projections called Dermal papillae
1. Some contain capillary loops
2. Other house pain receptors and touch receptors
Reticular layer (deepest skin layer)
Blood vessels
Sweat and oil glands
Deep pressure receptors
• Collagen & elastic
Located throughout dermis
Collagen = toughness
Elastic = elasticity
• Blood vessels play a role in body temperature regulation
vii) Hypodermis
3) Skin Color
a) Pigments
i) Melanin
• Yellow, brown, or black pigments
ii) Carotene
• Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
iii) Hemoglobin
• Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries
• Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring
4) Appendages (something that sticks out) of the skin
a) Glands (See Fig. 4.6)
i) Sebaceous or oil glands
• Lubricant for skin
• Prevents brittle hair
• Kills bacteria
• Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles; mother open directly into skin surface
• Glands are activated at puberty
• Sebum
ii) Sweat glands: produces sweat, located all over body
Odor is from breakdown by associated bacteria
• Composition
Mostly water
Salts and vitamin C
Some metabolic waste
Fatty acids and proteins (apocrine only)
• Function
Helps dissipate excess heat
Excretes waste products
Acidic nature inhibits bacteria growth
• Two types:
Eccrine
Open via duct to pore on skin surface
All over body, produce sweat
Apocrine
Ducts empty into hair follicles
Axillary & genital areas, mysterious
• Ceruminous glands
• Mammary glands
b) Nails (See Fig. 4.9)
- Scale-like modifications of the epidermis (heavily keratinized)
- Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed (responsible for growth)
- Lack of pigment makes them colorless
i) Nail structures:
• Free edge
Body is the visible attached portion
Root of nail embedded in skin
Cuticle is the proximal nail fold that projects onto the nail body
ii) Nail bed
iii) Nail matrix
iv) Nail folds
c) Hair (See Fig. 4.7)
- Produced by hair follicle
- Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
- Melanocytes provides pigment for hair color
i) Hair anatomy:
• Central medulla
• Cortex surrounds medulla
• Cuticle on outside of cortex
Most heavily keratinized
ii) Structure
• Follicle
Dermal and epidermal sheath surrounds hair root
• Root
• Shaft
iii) Arrector pili muscle
• Smooth muscle
• Pulls hair upright when cold or frightened
iv) Concentric layers
• Medulla
• Cortex
• Cuticle
v) Hair follicle (See Fig. 5.5)
• Hair bulb
• Root hair plexus
• Hair papilla
• Hair mat
vi) Hair thinning and baldness – genetic trait
5) Infections
a) Athlete’s foot (tinea pedis)
i) Caused by fungal infection
b) Boils & carbuncles
i) Caused by bacterial infection
c) Cold sores
i) Caused by virus
d) Contact dermatitis
i) Exposures cause allergic reaction
e) Impetigo
i) Caused by bacterial infection
f) Psoriasis
i) Cause is unknown…autoimmune?
ii) Triggered by trauma, infection, stress
6) Burns – tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV radiation, or chemicals
a) Associated dangers:
i) dehydration
ii) electrolyte imbalance
iii) circulatory shock
b) Rule of nines – way to determine the extent of burns
i) Body is divides into 11 areas for quick estimation
ii) Each area represents about 9% of total body surface area
c) Classification of burns
i) First degree
• Only epidermis is damaged
• Skin is red and swollen
ii) Second degree
• Epidermis and upper dermis are damaged
• Skin is red with blisters
iii) Third degree
• Destroys entire skin layer
• Burn is gray=white or black
iv) Fourth degree
v) Critical Burns
• Burns are considered critical if:
Over 25% of body has second-degree burns
Over 10% of the body has third-degree burns
There are third-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet
7) Skin cancer
a) Caner - Abnormal cell mass
b) Classified two ways:
i) Benign
• does not spread (encapsulated)
ii) Malignant
• Metastasized (moves) to other parts of the body
c) Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer
d) Types
i) Basal cell carcinoma
• Least malignant (dangerous)
• Most common type
• Arises from stratum basale
ii) Squamous cell carcinoma:
• Metastasized to lymph nodes if not removed
• Early removal allows a good chance of cure
• Believed to be sun-induced
• Arises from stratum spinosum
iii) Melanoma
• Malignant melanoma:
Most deadly of skin cancers
Cancer of melanocytes
Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels
Detection uses ABCD rule
e) ABCD rule
i) A = asymmetry
• Two sides of pigmented mole do not match
ii) B = border irregularity
• Borders of mole are not smooth
iii) C = color
• Different colors in pigmented area
iv) D = diameter
• Spot is larger than 6mm in diameter
Chapter 3 Outline
Chapter 3: Cells & Tissues: Part I: Cells: The Living Units
1) Cells (See Fig. 3.4)
a) Definition – carry out all chemical activities needed to sustain life, cells are the building blocks of all living things
b) Cytology – study of cells
c) Tissues – when we group cells together that are similar in structure and function
d) Cell structure – cells are not all the same, all cells share general structures, all cells have three main regions: nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane
i) Plasma membrane – barrier for cell contents
ii) Cytoplasm – is the material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
iii) Cytosol – fluid that suspends other elements
iv) Organelles – metabolic machinery of the cell, “little organs” that perform functions for the cell
v) Inclusions – chemical substances such as stored nutrients or cell products
vi) Nucleus – control center of the cell, contains genetic material. Three regions: nucleolus, nuclear envelope (membrane), and nucleoli
vii) Nucleolus – the dot within the nucleus, chromatin
viii) Nuclear envelope – barrier of the nucleus, consists of a double membrane, contains nuclear press that allows for exchange of material with the rest of the cell
ix) Nucleoli – site of the ribosomes, they migrate into the cytoplasm through nuclear pores
x) Chromatin – composed of DNA and protein, present when the cell is not dividing, scattered throughout the nucleus
2) Cell (plasma) membrane
a) General characteristics
i) Selective permeability
(1) only certain objects can pass through it
(2) This permeability influences movement both into and out of the cell
ii) Living cells maintain chemical gradient
b) Structure – The Fluid Mosaic Model (See Fig. 3.2)
i) Phospholipid bilayer
(1) Hydrophilic polar head ( = water loving)
(2) Hydrophobic nonpolar tails (= water fearing)
ii) Glycolipids and cholesterol
iii) Proteins
(1) Integral
(2) Peripheral
iv) Microvilli - finger-like projections that increase the surface area for absorption
c) Membranes junctions
i) Tight junctions – impermeable junctions, bring cells together into leakproof sheets
ii) Desmosomes (See Fig. 3.3) – anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being pulled apart
iii) Gap junctions – allow communication between cells
3) The cytoplasm
a) Basic characteristics
b) Cytoplasmic organelles
i) Mitochondria (powerhouse of the cell) – change shape continuously, carry out reactions where oxygen is used to break down food, carry out reactions where oxygen is used to breakdown food, provides ATP for cellular energy
(1) Outer membrane
(2) Inner membrane = cristae
(3) Matrix
ii) Ribosomes – made of protein and RNA, sites of protein synthesis, found at two locations: free in cytoplasm, as part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(1) Free ribosomes
(2) Bound ribosomes
iii) Endoplasmic reticulum – ER (endo=within; plasmic=cytoplasm; reticulum= network) (See Fig. 3.18)
(1) Rough ER – RER (Granular)
(2) Smooth ER – SER (Agranular)
iv) Golgi apparatus
v) Lysosomes
vi) Peroxisomes
vii) Cytoskeletal elements
(1) Microtubules
(2) Microfilaments
(3) Intermediate filaments
viii) Centrosome and centrioles
ix) Cellular extensions
(1) Cilia
(2) Flagella
4) The nucleus
a) Basic characteristics
b) Nuclear envelope
i) Nuclear pore
ii) Nucleoplasm
c) Nucleoli
d) Chromatin (“beads on a string”)
i) Nucleosome (beads)
(1) Histones
(2) Double – stranded DNA
e) Membrane Transport – movement of substances into and out of the cell
i) Two basic methods of transport:
(1) Passive transport (See Fig. 3.10) – no energy is required
(a) Simple diffusion (See Fig. 3.9)
(i) Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a solution
(ii) Movement is from high concentration to low concentration, or “down a concentration gradient”
(iii) An unassisted process
(iv) Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough to pass through membrane pores
(b) Facilitated diffusion – substances require a protein carrier for passive transport
(i) Transport lipid-insoluble and large substances
(c) Osmosis (See Figs. 3.8 & 3.9) – simple diffusion of water through a membrane
(i) Highly polar water molecules easily cross the plasma membrane through aquaporins
(ii) Hypertonic solution (hyper = greater than, above)
1. Higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water
(iii) Hypotonic solution (hypo = less than, under)
1. Lower concentration of solutes and higher concentration of water
(iv) Isotonic solution (iso = same)
(d) Solutions and Transport
(i) Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more components:
(ii) Solvent – dissolving medium; typically water in the body
(iii) Solute – components in smaller quantities within a solution
(iv) Intracellular fluid – inside the cell
(v) Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell
(e) Filtration
(2) Active transport – cell must provide metabolic energy (ATP)
(a) Substances are transported that are unable to pass by diffusion
(b) Substances may be too large
(c) Substances may not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the membrane
(d) Substances may have to move against a concentration gradient
(e) ATP is used for transport
(f) Na+/ K+ pump (See Fig. 3.11)
(g) Vesicular transport (See Fig. 3.5)
(i) Exocytosis (Exo = out of; cyt = cell; osis = process)
(ii) Endocytosis (Endo = into; cyt = cell; osis = process)
1. Phagocytosis
2. Pinocytosis
ii) Resting membrane potential
5) Cell diversity – cells that:
a) Cells that connect body parts (connective tissue)
b) Cells that cover and line body organs (skin)
c) Cells that move organs and body parts (muscle and skeletal tissue)
d) Cells that store nutrients (fat)
e) Cells that fight disease (immune system)
f) Cells that gather information and control body functions (nerve cells)
g) Cells of reproduction (sperm cells and egg cells)
6) Cell growth and reproduction
a) The cell life cycle – two major periods:
i) Interphase – cell grows, carries on metabolic processes
(1) G1 = growth phase
(2) S = Synthetic phase
(a) DNA replication = semiconservative replication (See Fig. 3.14)
(i) Unwinding of double helix
(ii) Formation of replication fork
(iii) DNA polymerase
1. leading strand
2. lagging strand
(iv) Formation of 2 double helices
(3) G2 = final phase of interphase
ii) Cell division (See Fig. 3.15) – cell replicates itself, function is to produce more cells for growth and repair processes
(1) Mitosis = Nuclear division
The phases of Mitosis:
(a) Prophase
(i) Early prophase
(ii) Late prophase
(b) Metaphase
(c) Anaphase
(d) Telophase
(2) Cytokinesis = Cytoplasmic division
b) Protein synthesis (See Figs. 3.16)
i) Protein s have many functions:
(1) Building materials for cells
(2) Act as enzymes (biological catalysts, catalysts speed up the reaction)
ii) Basic terms
(1) Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein
(2) Genetic code
(3) Transcription
(4) Translation
iii) The role of RNA – essential for protein synthesis
(1) tRNA (Transfer RNA)
(a) Transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for building the protein
(2) rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)
(a) Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built
(3) mRNA (Messenger RNA)
(a) Carries the instructions for building a protein from the nucleus to the ribosome
iv) Transcription
(1) Definition
(2) Steps
(a) mRNA formation
(b) Editing of mRNA
v) Translation
Part II: Body Tissues: The Living Fabric
1) Introduction
a) Definition – groups of cells with similar structure and function
i) Tissue
ii) Histology
b) Primary Types
c) Epithelium
i) Locations:
(1) Body coverings
(2) Body linings
(3) Glandular tissue
ii) Functions:
(1) Protection
(2) Absorption
(3) Filtration
(4) Secretion
iii) Characteristics
(1) Cells fit closely together and often form sheets
(2) The apical (top) surface is the free surface of the tissue
(3) The lower surface of the epithelium rests on a basement membrane (like a glue)
(4) Avascular (no blood supply)
(5) Regenerate easily if well nourished
iv) Connective tissue
v) Muscle
vi) Nervous tissue
2) Epithelial tissue
a) Characteristics:
i) Cellularity
ii) Special Contacts
iii) Polarity
iv) Avascular
v) Regenerative
vi) Supported by connective tissue
b) Classification of epithelia (See Fig. 3.17)
i) Number of cell layers:
(1) Simple – one layer
(2) Stratified – more than one layer
ii) Shape of Cells:
(1) Squamous – flattened cells
(2) Cuboidal – cube-shaped
(3) Columnar – column-like
iii) Cellular arrangement (layers)
(1) Simple
(2) Stratified
c) Simple Epithelia (See Fig. 3.18)
i) Simple squamous epithelium
(1) Single layer of flat cells
(2) Usually forms membranes:
(a) Lines body cavities
(b) Lines lungs and capillaries
ii) Simple cuboidal epithelium
(1) Single layer of cube-like cells
(2) Common in glands and their ducts
(3) Forms walls of kidney tubules
(4) Covers the ovaries
iii) Simple columnar epithelium
(1) Single layer of tall cells
(2) Often includes mucus-producing goblet cells
iv) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
d) Stratified Epithelia (See Fig. 3.18)
i) Stratified squamous epithelium
(1) Cells at the apical surface are flattened
(2) Found as a protective covering where friction is common
(3) Locations
(a) Skin
(b) Mouth
(c) Esophagus
ii) Stratified cuboidal – two layers of cuboidal cells
iii) Stratified columnar – surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size and shape
iv) Stratified cuboidal and columnar:
(1) Rare in human body
(2) Found mainly in ducts of large glands
v) Transitional epithelium:
(1) Doesn’t have a single appearance
(2) Lines the bladder
e) Glandular Epithelium
i) Two major gland types:
(1) Endocrine glands:
(a) Ductless since secretions diffuse into blood vessels
(b) All secretions are hormones
(2) Exocrine glands:
(a) Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial surface
(b) Include sweat and oil glands
3) Connective tissue (See Fig. 3.19)
a) Characteristics
i) Common tissue of origin = mesenchyme
ii) Vascularity
iii) Nonliving Extracellular Matrix ECM
b) Structural elements of connective tissue
i) Ground substance
ii) Fibers
(1) Collagen fibers
(2) Elastic fibers
(3) Reticular fibers
iii) Cells
(1) Fibroblasts
(2) Chondroblasts
(3) Osteoblasts
(4) Hematopoeitic stem cell
c) Types
i) Mesenchyme
ii) Connective tissue proper
(1) Areolar connective tissue (loose connective tissue)
(a) Most widely distributed connective tissue
(b) Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
(c) Packing tissue around organs & under skin
(d) Contains all fiber types
(e) Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)
(2) Adipose connective tissue (loose connective tissue)
(a) Matrix: fat globules predominate
(b) Many cells contain large lipid deposits
(c) Functions:
(i) Insulates the body
(ii) Protects some organs (eyes)
(iii)
(d)
(3) Reticular connective tissue
(4) Dense regular connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue)
(a) Main matrix element is collagen fiber
(b) Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
(c) Locations:
(i) Tendons – attach skeletal muscle to bone
(ii) Ligaments – attach bone to bone at joints
(iii) Dermis – lower layers of the skin
iii) Cartilage
(1) Characteristics
(2) Types
(a) Hyaline cartilage
(b) Elastic cartilage
(i) Provides elasticity
(ii) Supports the external ear
(c) Fibrocartilage
(i) Highly compressible to absorb shock
(ii) Forms cushion-like discs between vertebrae
iv) Bone = Osseous tissue
v) Blood (See Fig. 4.9 k)
4) Nervous tissue (See Fig. 3.21)
a) Characteristics
i) Composed of neurons and nerve support cells
ii) Function is to send impulses to other areas of the body:
(1) Irritability
(2) Conductivity
b) Types of cells
i) Neurons
ii) Supporting cells
5) Muscle tissue (See Fig. 3.20)
a) Characteristics
i) Function is to produce movement
b) Three Types:
i) Skeletal muscle
(1) Under voluntary control
(2) Contracts to pull on bones or skin
(3) Produces gross body movement or facial expressions
(4) Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells:
(a) Straited (striped)
(b) Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
(c) Long, cylindrical
ii) Cardiac muscle
(1) Located only in heart
(2) Under involuntary control
(3) Function is to pump blood
(4) Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells:
(a) Cells are attached to other cardiac muscle cells at intercalated disks
(b) Straited (striped)
(c) One nucleus per cell
iii) Smooth muscle or visceral
(1) Under involuntary muscle
(2) Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach, uterus, and blood vessels
(3) Characteristics of smooth muscle cells:
(4) No visible striations
(5) One nucleus per cell
(6) Spindle-shaped cells
6) Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
a) Regeneration:
i) Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells
b) Fibrosis:
i) Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue (scar tissue)
c) Neoplasm – new growth benign or malignant
d) Hyperplasia – growth due to local stimulation
e) Atrophy – decrease in size
1) Cells (See Fig. 3.4)
a) Definition – carry out all chemical activities needed to sustain life, cells are the building blocks of all living things
b) Cytology – study of cells
c) Tissues – when we group cells together that are similar in structure and function
d) Cell structure – cells are not all the same, all cells share general structures, all cells have three main regions: nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane
i) Plasma membrane – barrier for cell contents
ii) Cytoplasm – is the material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane
iii) Cytosol – fluid that suspends other elements
iv) Organelles – metabolic machinery of the cell, “little organs” that perform functions for the cell
v) Inclusions – chemical substances such as stored nutrients or cell products
vi) Nucleus – control center of the cell, contains genetic material. Three regions: nucleolus, nuclear envelope (membrane), and nucleoli
vii) Nucleolus – the dot within the nucleus, chromatin
viii) Nuclear envelope – barrier of the nucleus, consists of a double membrane, contains nuclear press that allows for exchange of material with the rest of the cell
ix) Nucleoli – site of the ribosomes, they migrate into the cytoplasm through nuclear pores
x) Chromatin – composed of DNA and protein, present when the cell is not dividing, scattered throughout the nucleus
2) Cell (plasma) membrane
a) General characteristics
i) Selective permeability
(1) only certain objects can pass through it
(2) This permeability influences movement both into and out of the cell
ii) Living cells maintain chemical gradient
b) Structure – The Fluid Mosaic Model (See Fig. 3.2)
i) Phospholipid bilayer
(1) Hydrophilic polar head ( = water loving)
(2) Hydrophobic nonpolar tails (= water fearing)
ii) Glycolipids and cholesterol
iii) Proteins
(1) Integral
(2) Peripheral
iv) Microvilli - finger-like projections that increase the surface area for absorption
c) Membranes junctions
i) Tight junctions – impermeable junctions, bring cells together into leakproof sheets
ii) Desmosomes (See Fig. 3.3) – anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being pulled apart
iii) Gap junctions – allow communication between cells
3) The cytoplasm
a) Basic characteristics
b) Cytoplasmic organelles
i) Mitochondria (powerhouse of the cell) – change shape continuously, carry out reactions where oxygen is used to break down food, carry out reactions where oxygen is used to breakdown food, provides ATP for cellular energy
(1) Outer membrane
(2) Inner membrane = cristae
(3) Matrix
ii) Ribosomes – made of protein and RNA, sites of protein synthesis, found at two locations: free in cytoplasm, as part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(1) Free ribosomes
(2) Bound ribosomes
iii) Endoplasmic reticulum – ER (endo=within; plasmic=cytoplasm; reticulum= network) (See Fig. 3.18)
(1) Rough ER – RER (Granular)
(2) Smooth ER – SER (Agranular)
iv) Golgi apparatus
v) Lysosomes
vi) Peroxisomes
vii) Cytoskeletal elements
(1) Microtubules
(2) Microfilaments
(3) Intermediate filaments
viii) Centrosome and centrioles
ix) Cellular extensions
(1) Cilia
(2) Flagella
4) The nucleus
a) Basic characteristics
b) Nuclear envelope
i) Nuclear pore
ii) Nucleoplasm
c) Nucleoli
d) Chromatin (“beads on a string”)
i) Nucleosome (beads)
(1) Histones
(2) Double – stranded DNA
e) Membrane Transport – movement of substances into and out of the cell
i) Two basic methods of transport:
(1) Passive transport (See Fig. 3.10) – no energy is required
(a) Simple diffusion (See Fig. 3.9)
(i) Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a solution
(ii) Movement is from high concentration to low concentration, or “down a concentration gradient”
(iii) An unassisted process
(iv) Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough to pass through membrane pores
(b) Facilitated diffusion – substances require a protein carrier for passive transport
(i) Transport lipid-insoluble and large substances
(c) Osmosis (See Figs. 3.8 & 3.9) – simple diffusion of water through a membrane
(i) Highly polar water molecules easily cross the plasma membrane through aquaporins
(ii) Hypertonic solution (hyper = greater than, above)
1. Higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water
(iii) Hypotonic solution (hypo = less than, under)
1. Lower concentration of solutes and higher concentration of water
(iv) Isotonic solution (iso = same)
(d) Solutions and Transport
(i) Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more components:
(ii) Solvent – dissolving medium; typically water in the body
(iii) Solute – components in smaller quantities within a solution
(iv) Intracellular fluid – inside the cell
(v) Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell
(e) Filtration
(2) Active transport – cell must provide metabolic energy (ATP)
(a) Substances are transported that are unable to pass by diffusion
(b) Substances may be too large
(c) Substances may not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the membrane
(d) Substances may have to move against a concentration gradient
(e) ATP is used for transport
(f) Na+/ K+ pump (See Fig. 3.11)
(g) Vesicular transport (See Fig. 3.5)
(i) Exocytosis (Exo = out of; cyt = cell; osis = process)
(ii) Endocytosis (Endo = into; cyt = cell; osis = process)
1. Phagocytosis
2. Pinocytosis
ii) Resting membrane potential
5) Cell diversity – cells that:
a) Cells that connect body parts (connective tissue)
b) Cells that cover and line body organs (skin)
c) Cells that move organs and body parts (muscle and skeletal tissue)
d) Cells that store nutrients (fat)
e) Cells that fight disease (immune system)
f) Cells that gather information and control body functions (nerve cells)
g) Cells of reproduction (sperm cells and egg cells)
6) Cell growth and reproduction
a) The cell life cycle – two major periods:
i) Interphase – cell grows, carries on metabolic processes
(1) G1 = growth phase
(2) S = Synthetic phase
(a) DNA replication = semiconservative replication (See Fig. 3.14)
(i) Unwinding of double helix
(ii) Formation of replication fork
(iii) DNA polymerase
1. leading strand
2. lagging strand
(iv) Formation of 2 double helices
(3) G2 = final phase of interphase
ii) Cell division (See Fig. 3.15) – cell replicates itself, function is to produce more cells for growth and repair processes
(1) Mitosis = Nuclear division
The phases of Mitosis:
(a) Prophase
(i) Early prophase
(ii) Late prophase
(b) Metaphase
(c) Anaphase
(d) Telophase
(2) Cytokinesis = Cytoplasmic division
b) Protein synthesis (See Figs. 3.16)
i) Protein s have many functions:
(1) Building materials for cells
(2) Act as enzymes (biological catalysts, catalysts speed up the reaction)
ii) Basic terms
(1) Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein
(2) Genetic code
(3) Transcription
(4) Translation
iii) The role of RNA – essential for protein synthesis
(1) tRNA (Transfer RNA)
(a) Transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for building the protein
(2) rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)
(a) Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built
(3) mRNA (Messenger RNA)
(a) Carries the instructions for building a protein from the nucleus to the ribosome
iv) Transcription
(1) Definition
(2) Steps
(a) mRNA formation
(b) Editing of mRNA
v) Translation
Part II: Body Tissues: The Living Fabric
1) Introduction
a) Definition – groups of cells with similar structure and function
i) Tissue
ii) Histology
b) Primary Types
c) Epithelium
i) Locations:
(1) Body coverings
(2) Body linings
(3) Glandular tissue
ii) Functions:
(1) Protection
(2) Absorption
(3) Filtration
(4) Secretion
iii) Characteristics
(1) Cells fit closely together and often form sheets
(2) The apical (top) surface is the free surface of the tissue
(3) The lower surface of the epithelium rests on a basement membrane (like a glue)
(4) Avascular (no blood supply)
(5) Regenerate easily if well nourished
iv) Connective tissue
v) Muscle
vi) Nervous tissue
2) Epithelial tissue
a) Characteristics:
i) Cellularity
ii) Special Contacts
iii) Polarity
iv) Avascular
v) Regenerative
vi) Supported by connective tissue
b) Classification of epithelia (See Fig. 3.17)
i) Number of cell layers:
(1) Simple – one layer
(2) Stratified – more than one layer
ii) Shape of Cells:
(1) Squamous – flattened cells
(2) Cuboidal – cube-shaped
(3) Columnar – column-like
iii) Cellular arrangement (layers)
(1) Simple
(2) Stratified
c) Simple Epithelia (See Fig. 3.18)
i) Simple squamous epithelium
(1) Single layer of flat cells
(2) Usually forms membranes:
(a) Lines body cavities
(b) Lines lungs and capillaries
ii) Simple cuboidal epithelium
(1) Single layer of cube-like cells
(2) Common in glands and their ducts
(3) Forms walls of kidney tubules
(4) Covers the ovaries
iii) Simple columnar epithelium
(1) Single layer of tall cells
(2) Often includes mucus-producing goblet cells
iv) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
d) Stratified Epithelia (See Fig. 3.18)
i) Stratified squamous epithelium
(1) Cells at the apical surface are flattened
(2) Found as a protective covering where friction is common
(3) Locations
(a) Skin
(b) Mouth
(c) Esophagus
ii) Stratified cuboidal – two layers of cuboidal cells
iii) Stratified columnar – surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size and shape
iv) Stratified cuboidal and columnar:
(1) Rare in human body
(2) Found mainly in ducts of large glands
v) Transitional epithelium:
(1) Doesn’t have a single appearance
(2) Lines the bladder
e) Glandular Epithelium
i) Two major gland types:
(1) Endocrine glands:
(a) Ductless since secretions diffuse into blood vessels
(b) All secretions are hormones
(2) Exocrine glands:
(a) Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial surface
(b) Include sweat and oil glands
3) Connective tissue (See Fig. 3.19)
a) Characteristics
i) Common tissue of origin = mesenchyme
ii) Vascularity
iii) Nonliving Extracellular Matrix ECM
b) Structural elements of connective tissue
i) Ground substance
ii) Fibers
(1) Collagen fibers
(2) Elastic fibers
(3) Reticular fibers
iii) Cells
(1) Fibroblasts
(2) Chondroblasts
(3) Osteoblasts
(4) Hematopoeitic stem cell
c) Types
i) Mesenchyme
ii) Connective tissue proper
(1) Areolar connective tissue (loose connective tissue)
(a) Most widely distributed connective tissue
(b) Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
(c) Packing tissue around organs & under skin
(d) Contains all fiber types
(e) Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)
(2) Adipose connective tissue (loose connective tissue)
(a) Matrix: fat globules predominate
(b) Many cells contain large lipid deposits
(c) Functions:
(i) Insulates the body
(ii) Protects some organs (eyes)
(iii)
(d)
(3) Reticular connective tissue
(4) Dense regular connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue)
(a) Main matrix element is collagen fiber
(b) Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
(c) Locations:
(i) Tendons – attach skeletal muscle to bone
(ii) Ligaments – attach bone to bone at joints
(iii) Dermis – lower layers of the skin
iii) Cartilage
(1) Characteristics
(2) Types
(a) Hyaline cartilage
(b) Elastic cartilage
(i) Provides elasticity
(ii) Supports the external ear
(c) Fibrocartilage
(i) Highly compressible to absorb shock
(ii) Forms cushion-like discs between vertebrae
iv) Bone = Osseous tissue
v) Blood (See Fig. 4.9 k)
4) Nervous tissue (See Fig. 3.21)
a) Characteristics
i) Composed of neurons and nerve support cells
ii) Function is to send impulses to other areas of the body:
(1) Irritability
(2) Conductivity
b) Types of cells
i) Neurons
ii) Supporting cells
5) Muscle tissue (See Fig. 3.20)
a) Characteristics
i) Function is to produce movement
b) Three Types:
i) Skeletal muscle
(1) Under voluntary control
(2) Contracts to pull on bones or skin
(3) Produces gross body movement or facial expressions
(4) Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells:
(a) Straited (striped)
(b) Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
(c) Long, cylindrical
ii) Cardiac muscle
(1) Located only in heart
(2) Under involuntary control
(3) Function is to pump blood
(4) Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells:
(a) Cells are attached to other cardiac muscle cells at intercalated disks
(b) Straited (striped)
(c) One nucleus per cell
iii) Smooth muscle or visceral
(1) Under involuntary muscle
(2) Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach, uterus, and blood vessels
(3) Characteristics of smooth muscle cells:
(4) No visible striations
(5) One nucleus per cell
(6) Spindle-shaped cells
6) Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
a) Regeneration:
i) Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells
b) Fibrosis:
i) Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue (scar tissue)
c) Neoplasm – new growth benign or malignant
d) Hyperplasia – growth due to local stimulation
e) Atrophy – decrease in size
Chapter 2 Outline
II. Chemistry Comes Alive
1) Basic Chemistry
a) Matter and Energy
i) Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass (weight)
ii) Energy – the ability to do work
• Various Forms:
(a) Chemical (food)
(b) Electrical (light)
(c) Mechanical (ei. Wind-up flashlights)
(d) Radiant (sun)
(e) Others…
b) Composition of Matter: Atoms and Elements
i) Basic Terms
• Elements – fundamental units of matter
(a) 96% of the body is made from the four elements:
o Carbon (C)
o Oxygen (O)
o Hydrogen (H)
o Nitrogen (N)
• Atoms – building blocks of elements
• Atomic symbols
ii) Atomic structure (See Figs. 2.1& 2.2)
• Nucleus
(a) Inside
o Protons (p+) – positive charge
o Neutrons (n) – neutral charge
(b) Outside
o Electrons (e-) – negative charge
• Isotopes
iii) Major elements of the human body (See Table 2.1)
iv) Identification of elements
• Atomic number – the number of protons
• Mass number – sum of protons and neutrons
• Atomic weight – reflects the different isotopes
• Isotopes – have the same number of protons, vary in the number of neutrons
• Radioactivity – process of spontaneous atomic decay
(a) Radioisotope:
o Heavy isotope
o Tends to be unstable
o Decomposes to more stable isotope
c) Molecules and Mixtures
i) Molecules – two or more like atoms combined chemically
ii) Compounds – two or more different atoms combined chemically
iii) Mixtures
d) Chemical bonds – atoms are united by these
i) Atoms dissociate from other atoms when chemical bonds are broken
ii) The role of electrons in chemical bonding
• Electron shells – energy levels occupied by electrons, elections closest to the nucleus are most strongly attracted
(a) Each shell has distinct properties:
o The number of electrons has an upper limit
o Shells closest to the nucleus fill first
• Energy levels
• Bonding involves interactions between electrons in the outer (valence shell)
• Filling of electron shells
(a) Valence shell – if full, do not form bonds
(b) Rule of eight = rule of octet
• Inert elements (See Fig. 2.5a)
(a) Atoms are stable (inert elements) when the outer most shell (valence shell) is complete
(b) How to fill the atom’s shells:
Shell 1 can hold a max of 2 electrons
Shell 2 can hold a max of 8 electrons
Shell 3 can hold a max of 18
• Active elements
(a) Valence shells are not full and are unstable
(b) Tend to gain, lose, or share electrons
o Allow for bond formation, which produces stable valence
iii) Types of chemical bonds
• Ionic bonds (See Figure 2.6) – forms when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another
(a) Transfer of electrons
(b) Ions – charged particles
o Anions are negative
o Cations are positive
o Either donate or accept electrons
• Covalent bonds (See Fig. 2.7)
(a) Atoms become stable through shared electrons
(b) Single covalent bonds share one pair of electrons
(c) Double covalent bonds share two pairs of electrons
(d) Covalently bonded molecules:
o Some are non-polar
Electrically neutral as a molecule
o Some are polar
(e) Have a positive and negative side
• Hydrogen bonds:
(a) Weak chemical bonds
(b) Hydrogen is attracted to the negative portion of polar molecule
(c) Provides attraction between molecules, like a magnetic force
iv) Types
• Synthesis or anabolic reactions (endergonic)
(a) A + B AB
(b) Atoms or molecules combine
(c) Energy is absorbed for bond formation
• Decomposition or catabolic reactions (exergonic)
(a) AB A + B
(b) Molecule is broken down
(c) Chemical energy is released
• Exchange or displacement reactions
(a) AB + C AC + B
(b) Involves both synthesis and decomposition reactions
(c) Switch is made between molecule parts and different molecules are made
v) Reversibility of chemical reactions
vi) Rate of chemical reactions
(1) Temperature
(2) Particle Size
(3) Concentration
(4) Catalysts/Enzymes
2) Biochemistry – essentials for life
a) Organic compounds
i) Contains carbon
ii) Most are covalently bonded
iii) Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)
b) Inorganic compounds
i) Lack carbon
ii) Tend to be simpler compounds
iii) Example: H2O (water)
iv) Important Inorganic Compounds
• Water (Figure 2.8 &2.9): most abundant inorganic compound
(a) Vital properties:
o High heat capacity
o Polarity/solvent properties
o Chemical reactivity
o Cushioning
• Salts (See Fig. 2.12)
(a) Vital properties:
o easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water
o Vital to many body functions
o Include electrolytes which conduct electrical currents
• Acids and bases (See Fig. 2.13)
(a) Acids – release hydrogen ions (H+)
o Are proton donors
(b) Bases – release hydroxyl ions (OH-)
o Are proton acceptors
(c) pH (Fig. 2.12)
o Acidic – pH below 7
o Basic – pH above 7
o Neutral – pH is 7
o Neutralization reaction
Acids and bases react to form a water and a salt
o Buffers – chemicals that can regulate pH change
c) Important Organic compounds
i) Carbohydrates (See Figs. 2.13)
• Contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• Includes sugars and starches
(a) Classified according to size:
o Monosaccharides - simple sugars
Body uses this to digest
o Disaccharides – two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis
o Polysaccharides – long-branching chains of linked simple sugars
ii) Lipids (See Fig. 2.15) – fat
• Contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
(a) Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen
• Insoluble in water
• Common lipids in the human body:
(a) Neutral fats (triglycerides):
o Found in fat deposits
o Composed of fatty acids and glycerol
o Source of stored energy
(b) Phospholipids
o Form cell membranes
(c) Steroids
o Includes cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some hormones
iii) Proteins (See Fig. 2.16 & 2.17)
• Made of Amino acids
• Contains carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
• Accounts for over half of the body’s organic matter
• Provides for construction materials for body tissues
• Play a vital role in cell functions
• Act as enzymes, hormones, and anitbodies
• Structural levels of proteins
(a) Primary structure
(b) Secondary structure
(c) Tertiary structure
(d) Quaternary structure
• Fibrous versus Globular proteins
• Protein denaturation
• Enzymes
(a) Characteristics
(b) Mechanism of actions (See Fig. 2.18)
iv) Nucleic acids (See Fig. 2.19): provide blueprint of life
• Nucleotides – makes DNA and RNA
(a) Nucleotide bases:
o A = Adenine
o G = Guadnin
o C = Cytosine
o T = Thymine
o U = Uracil
(b) Sugar
o Ribose (RNA)
o Deoxyribose (DNA)
(c) Phosphate group
• Types
(a) Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA
(b) Ribonucleic acid RNA
v) Adenosine triphosphate ATP (See Figs. 2.20 & 2.21) = energy
• Chemical energy used by all cells
• Energy is released by breaking high energy phosphate bonds
• ATP is replenished by oxidation of food fuels
1) Basic Chemistry
a) Matter and Energy
i) Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass (weight)
ii) Energy – the ability to do work
• Various Forms:
(a) Chemical (food)
(b) Electrical (light)
(c) Mechanical (ei. Wind-up flashlights)
(d) Radiant (sun)
(e) Others…
b) Composition of Matter: Atoms and Elements
i) Basic Terms
• Elements – fundamental units of matter
(a) 96% of the body is made from the four elements:
o Carbon (C)
o Oxygen (O)
o Hydrogen (H)
o Nitrogen (N)
• Atoms – building blocks of elements
• Atomic symbols
ii) Atomic structure (See Figs. 2.1& 2.2)
• Nucleus
(a) Inside
o Protons (p+) – positive charge
o Neutrons (n) – neutral charge
(b) Outside
o Electrons (e-) – negative charge
• Isotopes
iii) Major elements of the human body (See Table 2.1)
iv) Identification of elements
• Atomic number – the number of protons
• Mass number – sum of protons and neutrons
• Atomic weight – reflects the different isotopes
• Isotopes – have the same number of protons, vary in the number of neutrons
• Radioactivity – process of spontaneous atomic decay
(a) Radioisotope:
o Heavy isotope
o Tends to be unstable
o Decomposes to more stable isotope
c) Molecules and Mixtures
i) Molecules – two or more like atoms combined chemically
ii) Compounds – two or more different atoms combined chemically
iii) Mixtures
d) Chemical bonds – atoms are united by these
i) Atoms dissociate from other atoms when chemical bonds are broken
ii) The role of electrons in chemical bonding
• Electron shells – energy levels occupied by electrons, elections closest to the nucleus are most strongly attracted
(a) Each shell has distinct properties:
o The number of electrons has an upper limit
o Shells closest to the nucleus fill first
• Energy levels
• Bonding involves interactions between electrons in the outer (valence shell)
• Filling of electron shells
(a) Valence shell – if full, do not form bonds
(b) Rule of eight = rule of octet
• Inert elements (See Fig. 2.5a)
(a) Atoms are stable (inert elements) when the outer most shell (valence shell) is complete
(b) How to fill the atom’s shells:
Shell 1 can hold a max of 2 electrons
Shell 2 can hold a max of 8 electrons
Shell 3 can hold a max of 18
• Active elements
(a) Valence shells are not full and are unstable
(b) Tend to gain, lose, or share electrons
o Allow for bond formation, which produces stable valence
iii) Types of chemical bonds
• Ionic bonds (See Figure 2.6) – forms when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another
(a) Transfer of electrons
(b) Ions – charged particles
o Anions are negative
o Cations are positive
o Either donate or accept electrons
• Covalent bonds (See Fig. 2.7)
(a) Atoms become stable through shared electrons
(b) Single covalent bonds share one pair of electrons
(c) Double covalent bonds share two pairs of electrons
(d) Covalently bonded molecules:
o Some are non-polar
Electrically neutral as a molecule
o Some are polar
(e) Have a positive and negative side
• Hydrogen bonds:
(a) Weak chemical bonds
(b) Hydrogen is attracted to the negative portion of polar molecule
(c) Provides attraction between molecules, like a magnetic force
iv) Types
• Synthesis or anabolic reactions (endergonic)
(a) A + B AB
(b) Atoms or molecules combine
(c) Energy is absorbed for bond formation
• Decomposition or catabolic reactions (exergonic)
(a) AB A + B
(b) Molecule is broken down
(c) Chemical energy is released
• Exchange or displacement reactions
(a) AB + C AC + B
(b) Involves both synthesis and decomposition reactions
(c) Switch is made between molecule parts and different molecules are made
v) Reversibility of chemical reactions
vi) Rate of chemical reactions
(1) Temperature
(2) Particle Size
(3) Concentration
(4) Catalysts/Enzymes
2) Biochemistry – essentials for life
a) Organic compounds
i) Contains carbon
ii) Most are covalently bonded
iii) Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)
b) Inorganic compounds
i) Lack carbon
ii) Tend to be simpler compounds
iii) Example: H2O (water)
iv) Important Inorganic Compounds
• Water (Figure 2.8 &2.9): most abundant inorganic compound
(a) Vital properties:
o High heat capacity
o Polarity/solvent properties
o Chemical reactivity
o Cushioning
• Salts (See Fig. 2.12)
(a) Vital properties:
o easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water
o Vital to many body functions
o Include electrolytes which conduct electrical currents
• Acids and bases (See Fig. 2.13)
(a) Acids – release hydrogen ions (H+)
o Are proton donors
(b) Bases – release hydroxyl ions (OH-)
o Are proton acceptors
(c) pH (Fig. 2.12)
o Acidic – pH below 7
o Basic – pH above 7
o Neutral – pH is 7
o Neutralization reaction
Acids and bases react to form a water and a salt
o Buffers – chemicals that can regulate pH change
c) Important Organic compounds
i) Carbohydrates (See Figs. 2.13)
• Contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• Includes sugars and starches
(a) Classified according to size:
o Monosaccharides - simple sugars
Body uses this to digest
o Disaccharides – two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis
o Polysaccharides – long-branching chains of linked simple sugars
ii) Lipids (See Fig. 2.15) – fat
• Contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
(a) Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen
• Insoluble in water
• Common lipids in the human body:
(a) Neutral fats (triglycerides):
o Found in fat deposits
o Composed of fatty acids and glycerol
o Source of stored energy
(b) Phospholipids
o Form cell membranes
(c) Steroids
o Includes cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some hormones
iii) Proteins (See Fig. 2.16 & 2.17)
• Made of Amino acids
• Contains carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
• Accounts for over half of the body’s organic matter
• Provides for construction materials for body tissues
• Play a vital role in cell functions
• Act as enzymes, hormones, and anitbodies
• Structural levels of proteins
(a) Primary structure
(b) Secondary structure
(c) Tertiary structure
(d) Quaternary structure
• Fibrous versus Globular proteins
• Protein denaturation
• Enzymes
(a) Characteristics
(b) Mechanism of actions (See Fig. 2.18)
iv) Nucleic acids (See Fig. 2.19): provide blueprint of life
• Nucleotides – makes DNA and RNA
(a) Nucleotide bases:
o A = Adenine
o G = Guadnin
o C = Cytosine
o T = Thymine
o U = Uracil
(b) Sugar
o Ribose (RNA)
o Deoxyribose (DNA)
(c) Phosphate group
• Types
(a) Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA
(b) Ribonucleic acid RNA
v) Adenosine triphosphate ATP (See Figs. 2.20 & 2.21) = energy
• Chemical energy used by all cells
• Energy is released by breaking high energy phosphate bonds
• ATP is replenished by oxidation of food fuels
Chapter 1 Outline
I. The Human Body: An Orientation
1. An overview of Anatomy and Physiology
a. Introduction
b. Definitions
i. Anatomy – study of the structure and shape of the body and it’s parts
ii. Physiology – study of how the body and it’s parts work or function
c. Topics of Anatomy
i. Gross (large) or Macroscopic Anatomy
· Large Structures
· Easily Observable
· Studied through dissection
ii. Microscopic Anatomy
· Very small structures
· Can only be viewed with a microscope
· Cytology – study of cells
· Histology – study of tissues
d. Topics of Physiology
i. Renal – kidney functions
ii. Cardiovascular – heart and blood vessel functions
iii. Neural – nervous system functions
iv. Other Organ System Physiology
v. Close relationship between structure and function (the way something is built has everything to do with the way it can function)
e. Complementarity of Structure and Function
2. Levels of Structural Organization
a. Levels of Structural Hierarchy (See Figure 1.1)
i. Chemical Level
· Atoms combine to form molecules
ii. Cellular Level
· Cells are made up of molecules
iii. Tissue Level
· Tissues consist of similar types of cells
iv. Organ Level
· Organs are made up of different types of tissues
v. Organ System Level
· Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely
vi. Organismal Level
· Human organisms are made up of many organ systems
b. Summary of the Body’s Organ System (See Figure 1.2)
i. Integumentary System - skin
· Forms the external body covering
· Protects deeper tissue from injury
· Helps regulate the body temperature
· Location of cutaneous nerve receptors
ii. Skeletal System
· Protects and supports body organs
· Provides muscle attachment for movement
· Sit of blood cell formation
· Stores minerals
iii. Muscular System
· Produces movement
· Maintains posture
· Produces heat
iv. Nervous System
· Fast-acting control system
· Responds to internal and external change
· Activates muscles and glands
v. Endocrine System - hormones
· Secretes regulatory hormones
· Growth
· Reproduction
· Metabolism
vi. Cardiovascular System
· Transports materials in body via blood pumped by the heart
· In comes Oxygen (good)
· Out goes Carbon Dioxide (bad)
· Nutrients
· Wastes
vii. Lymphatic System / Immune System
· Returns fluids to blood vessels
· Cleanses the blood
· Involved in immunity
viii. Respiratory System
· Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
· Removes carbon dioxide
ix. Digestive System – oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
· Breaks down food
· Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
· Eliminate indigestible material
x. Urinary System – kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
· Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
· Maintains acid-base balance
· Regulates water and electrolytes
xi. Reproductive System – (male) prostate gland, vas deferens, testis, scrotum, seminal vesicles, penis (female) mammary glands (in breasts). Uterine tube, ovary, uterus, vagina
· Produces offspring
3. Necessary Life Functions
a. Maintain Boundaries
i. Gradients = differences
b. Movement
i. Locomotion – organism moves
ii. Movement of substances – within or outside
c. Responsiveness: ability to sense changes and react
d. Digestion: break-down and absorption of nutrients
e. Metabolism: chemical reactions within the body
i. Produces energy – from food
ii. Makes body structures
f. Excretion: eliminates waste from metabolic reactions
g. Reproduction: produces future generation
h. Growth: increases cell size and number of cells
4. Homeostasis
a. Maintenance of a stable internal environment
b. A dynamic state of equilibrium
c. Homeostasis is necessary for normal body functioning to sustain life
d. Homeostatic imbalance
i. A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease
e. Homeostatic control mechanisms (See Figure 1.4)
i. Elements of a control system
· Receptor
· Control Center
· Effectore
ii. Negative feedback mechanism (See Figure 1.5)
· Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
· Shuts out the original stimulus, or reduces it’s intensity
· Works like a household thermostat
· Opposite directional change
· Effector decreases original stimulus
iii. Positive feedback mechanism (See Figure 1.6)
· Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther
· In the body this only occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby
· Same directional change
· Effector enhances original stimulus
5. The Language of Anatomy
a. Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding
b. Exact terms are used for: position, direction, regions, and structures
c. Anatomical position: a position used to be able to see all parts of the body
i. Human body erect
ii. Arms at sides
iii. Palms forward
iv. Feet together
d. Directional Terms (See Table 1.1)
i. Definition: Directional terms allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another
ii. Superior – toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
· The forehead is superior to the nose
iii. Inferior*****************
iv. Anterior (ventral) - the front
· The mouth is on the anterior of the body where as the shoulder blades are on the posterior side of the body
v. Posterior (dorsal) – toward or at the backside of the body; behind
· The heart is posterior to the breastbrone
vi. Proximal – close to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
· The elbow is proximal to the wrist (meaning that the elbow is closer to the shoulder or attachment point of the arm than the wrist is)
vii. Distal - farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
· The knee is distal to the thigh
viii. Lateral – away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
· The arms are lateral to the chest
ix. Intermediate/Medical
x. Medial - toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
· The heart is medial to the arm
xi. Superficial (external) – toward or at the body surface
· The skin is superficial to the skeleton
xii. Deep (internal) – away from the body surface; more internal
· The lungs are deep to the rib cage
e. Regional Terms (See Figure 1.7)
i. Definition: Regional terms are used to designate specific areas within the major body divisions
· Axial part = from head to pubic region
· Appendicular part = arms and legs
ii. Anterio
· Nasal (Nose)
· Oral (mouth)
· Cervical (neck)
· Axillary (armpit)
· Frontal (forehead)
· Orbital (eye)
· Buccal (cheek)
· Sternal (breastbone)
· Thoracic (chest)
· Mammary (breast)
· Abdominal (abdomen)
· Brachial (arm)
· Umbilical (navel)
· Pelvic (pelvis)
· Femoral (thigh)
· Carpal (wrist)
· Digital (fingers)
· Coxal (hip)
· Pubic (genital region)
· Patellar (anterior knee)
· Pedal (foot)
iii. Posterior Body Landmarks
· Cephalic (head)
· Otic (ear)
· Sacral (between hips)
· Occipital (base of the skull)
· Vertebral (spinal column)
· Scapular (shoulder blade)
· Dorsal (back)
· Gluteal (buttock)
· Calcaneal (heel)
· Plantar (sole)
· Acromial (point of shoulder)
· Popliteal (back of the knee)
f. Body Planes (See Figure 1.8)
i. Sagittal plane: A sagittal section divides the body or organ into left and right parts
· Midsagittal – a median, or midsagittal, section divides the body (or organ into equal left and right parts (median plane)
· Parasagittal – Nearby planes (next to the midsagittal plane)
ii. Transverse Plane = horizontal plane
· A transverse, or cross, section deivides the body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts
iii. Oblique - doesn’t fit in the frontal, transverse, or sagittal plane
iv. Frontal Plane - d frontal section divides the body (or organ) into anterior and posterior parts
g. Body Cavities (See Figure 1.9)
i. Dorsal Body Cavity
· Cranial cavity – houses the brain
· Vertebral cavity – spinal cavity (inside the vertebral cavity) houses the spinal cord
ii. Ventral Body Cavity
· Thoracic cavity – houses heart, lungs, and other
a. Pleural cavities
b. Pericardial Cavity
· Abdominopelvic cavity – houses digestive system and most urinary system organs
a. Abdominal Cavity
b. Pelvic Cavity
h. Membranes in the ventral body cavity (See Fig. 1.10)
i. Serous membrane = serosa
· Parietal serosa
· Visceral serosa
ii. Serous fluid
· Location
· Functions
iii. Examples of serous membranes
· Pericardium
· Pleura
· Peritoneum
i. Quadrants
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