Chapter 16: Reproductive System & Development
Part C: Menstrual cycle, Pregnancy
1. Menstrual (uterine) cycle
a. Overview
i. Cyclic changes of the endometrium
ii. Regulated by cyclic production of estrogens and progesterone
iii. FSH and LH regulate the production of estrogens and progesterone
iv. Both female cycles are about 28 days in length
v. Ovulation typically occurs about midway through cycle on day 14
1. However, variations occur
b. Stages
i. Menstrual phase
1. Days 1-5
2. Functional layer of the endometrium is sloughed
3. Bleeding occurs for 3-5 days
4. By day 5, growing ovarian follicles are producing more estrogen
ii. Proliferative stage
1. Days 6-14
2. Regulation of functional layer of the endometrium
3. Estrogen levels rise
4. Ovulation occurs in the ovary at the end of this stage
iii. Secretory stage
1. Days 15-28
2. Progesterone levels rise and increase the blood supply to the endometrium
3. Endometrium increases in size and readies for implantation
4. If fertilization does occur
a. Embryo produces a hormone a hormone (HCG) that causes the corpus luteum to continue producing its hormones
5. If fertilization does not occur
a. Corpus luteum degenerates as LH blood levels decline
c. Hormones produced by ovaries
i. Estrogen
1. Produced by follicle cells
2. Cause secondary sex characteristics:
a. Enlargement of accessory organs
b. Development of breasts
c. Appearance of axillary and pubic hair
d. Increase in fat beneath the skin, particularly in hips and breasts
e. Widening and lightening of the pelvis
f. Onset of menses (menstrual cycle)
ii. Progesterone = the hormone of pregnancy
1. Produced by the corpus luteum
2. Production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
3. Does not contribute to the appearance of secondary sex characteristics
4. Helps maintain pregnancy
5. Prepares breasts for milk productions
6. Feedback
d. Mammary glands
i. Present in
1. Modified
ii. Function is
iii. Stimulated by
Wednesday, May 25, 2011
Chapter 16, Reproductive System, Part B
Chapter 16: Reproductive System
Part B: Female System
1. Overview
a. Ovaries (2)—produce eggs and female sex hormones
b. Duct system: (transportation)
i. Fallopian tubes (2)—egg transport
ii. Uterus (1)—embryo/fetal development
iii. Vagina (1)—copulation, birth canal
c. External genitalia—copulation
2. Ovaries
a. Composed of ovarian follicles (sac-like structures):
i. Oocyte (immature egg)
ii. Follicular cells—surround the oocyte
iii. Follicular stages
1. Primary follicle—contains an immature oocyte
2. Graafian (vesicular) follicle—growing follicle with a maturing oocyte
3. Ovulation—when the egg is mature, the follicle ruptures (about every 28 days).
4. The ruptured follilcle is transformed into a Corpus luteum
b. Support
i. Suspensory ligaments—secure ovary to lateral walls of the pelvis
ii. Ovarian ligaments—attach to uterus
iii. Broad ligament—a fold of the peritoneum, encloses suspensory ligament
3. Duct system
a. Fallopian tubes
i. Receive the ovulated oocyte
ii. Provide a site for fertilization
iii. Attach to the uterus
iv. Little or no contact between ovaries and uterine tubes
v. Supported and enclosed by the broad ligament
vi. Anatomy & physiology
1. Fimbriae
a. Finger-like projections at the distal end of the uterine tube
b. Receive the oocyte from the ovary
2. Cilia
a. Located inside the uterine tube
b. Slowly move the oocyte towards the uterus (takes 3-4 days)
3. Fertilization occurs inside the uterine tube since oocyte lives about 24
b. Uterus
i. Located between the urinary bladder and rectum
ii. Hollow organ—pear shape
iii. Functions
1. Receives a fertilized egg
2. Retains the fertilized egg
3. Nourishes the fertilized egg
iv. Support
1. Broad
2. Round
3. Uterosacral
v. Regions of
1. Body—main portion
2. Fundus—superior rounded region above where uterine tube enters
3. Cervix—narrow outlet that protrudes into the vagina
vi. Walls of
1. Endometrium
a. Inner layer
b. Allows for implantation of a fertilized egg
c. Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (menses)
2. Myometrium—middle layer of smooth muscle
3. Perimetrium (visceral peritoneum)—outermost serous layer of the uterus
c. Vagina
i. Extends from
ii. Located between
iii. Serves as
iv. Receives
v. Hymen
4. External genitalia = vulva
a. Mons pubis
i. Fatty area
ii. Covered with
b. Labia =
i. Majora
ii. Minora
iii. Corresponds to
iv. Majora encloses vestibule
1. Contains external openings of
c. Clitoris
i. Contains
ii. Corresponds to
1. Hooded
2. Composed of
3. Becomes swollen
d. Greater vestibular glands
i. One found on
ii. Secretes
e. Perineum
i. Diamond-shaped defined by:
1. Anterior:
2. Posterior:
3. Lateral:
ii. Urethral orifice
iii. Vaginal orifice
5. Oogenesis and ovarian cycle
a. Total supply of eggs are present at birth
b. Ability to release eggs begins at puberty
c. Reproductive ability ends at menopause
d. Oocytes are matured in developing ovarian follicles
e. The process and steps of oogenesis
i. Oogonia—female stem cells found in a developing fetus
ii. Oogonia undergo mitosis to produce primary oocytes
iii. Cells surrounding primary oocytes that form primary follicles in the ovary
iv. Oogonia no longer exist by the time of birth
v. Primary oocytes are inactive until puberty
vi. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes some primary follicles to mature each month
vii. Cyclic monthly changes constitute the ovarian cycle
f. Meiosis
i. Starts inside maturing follicle
ii. Produces a secondary oocyte and the first polar body
iii. Development to mature stage takes about 14 days
iv. Secondary oocyte ovulates with the release of luteinizing hormone (LH).
1. Surrounded by a corona radiate (nurturing cells)
v. Is completed
1. Ovum = egg
2. Two additional
vi. Zygote (fertilized egg) =
vii. If no fertilization
viii. Comparison
1. Males
2. Females
ix. Sperm and egg comparison
1. Sperm
2. Egg
Part B: Female System
1. Overview
a. Ovaries (2)—produce eggs and female sex hormones
b. Duct system: (transportation)
i. Fallopian tubes (2)—egg transport
ii. Uterus (1)—embryo/fetal development
iii. Vagina (1)—copulation, birth canal
c. External genitalia—copulation
2. Ovaries
a. Composed of ovarian follicles (sac-like structures):
i. Oocyte (immature egg)
ii. Follicular cells—surround the oocyte
iii. Follicular stages
1. Primary follicle—contains an immature oocyte
2. Graafian (vesicular) follicle—growing follicle with a maturing oocyte
3. Ovulation—when the egg is mature, the follicle ruptures (about every 28 days).
4. The ruptured follilcle is transformed into a Corpus luteum
b. Support
i. Suspensory ligaments—secure ovary to lateral walls of the pelvis
ii. Ovarian ligaments—attach to uterus
iii. Broad ligament—a fold of the peritoneum, encloses suspensory ligament
3. Duct system
a. Fallopian tubes
i. Receive the ovulated oocyte
ii. Provide a site for fertilization
iii. Attach to the uterus
iv. Little or no contact between ovaries and uterine tubes
v. Supported and enclosed by the broad ligament
vi. Anatomy & physiology
1. Fimbriae
a. Finger-like projections at the distal end of the uterine tube
b. Receive the oocyte from the ovary
2. Cilia
a. Located inside the uterine tube
b. Slowly move the oocyte towards the uterus (takes 3-4 days)
3. Fertilization occurs inside the uterine tube since oocyte lives about 24
b. Uterus
i. Located between the urinary bladder and rectum
ii. Hollow organ—pear shape
iii. Functions
1. Receives a fertilized egg
2. Retains the fertilized egg
3. Nourishes the fertilized egg
iv. Support
1. Broad
2. Round
3. Uterosacral
v. Regions of
1. Body—main portion
2. Fundus—superior rounded region above where uterine tube enters
3. Cervix—narrow outlet that protrudes into the vagina
vi. Walls of
1. Endometrium
a. Inner layer
b. Allows for implantation of a fertilized egg
c. Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (menses)
2. Myometrium—middle layer of smooth muscle
3. Perimetrium (visceral peritoneum)—outermost serous layer of the uterus
c. Vagina
i. Extends from
ii. Located between
iii. Serves as
iv. Receives
v. Hymen
4. External genitalia = vulva
a. Mons pubis
i. Fatty area
ii. Covered with
b. Labia =
i. Majora
ii. Minora
iii. Corresponds to
iv. Majora encloses vestibule
1. Contains external openings of
c. Clitoris
i. Contains
ii. Corresponds to
1. Hooded
2. Composed of
3. Becomes swollen
d. Greater vestibular glands
i. One found on
ii. Secretes
e. Perineum
i. Diamond-shaped defined by:
1. Anterior:
2. Posterior:
3. Lateral:
ii. Urethral orifice
iii. Vaginal orifice
5. Oogenesis and ovarian cycle
a. Total supply of eggs are present at birth
b. Ability to release eggs begins at puberty
c. Reproductive ability ends at menopause
d. Oocytes are matured in developing ovarian follicles
e. The process and steps of oogenesis
i. Oogonia—female stem cells found in a developing fetus
ii. Oogonia undergo mitosis to produce primary oocytes
iii. Cells surrounding primary oocytes that form primary follicles in the ovary
iv. Oogonia no longer exist by the time of birth
v. Primary oocytes are inactive until puberty
vi. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes some primary follicles to mature each month
vii. Cyclic monthly changes constitute the ovarian cycle
f. Meiosis
i. Starts inside maturing follicle
ii. Produces a secondary oocyte and the first polar body
iii. Development to mature stage takes about 14 days
iv. Secondary oocyte ovulates with the release of luteinizing hormone (LH).
1. Surrounded by a corona radiate (nurturing cells)
v. Is completed
1. Ovum = egg
2. Two additional
vi. Zygote (fertilized egg) =
vii. If no fertilization
viii. Comparison
1. Males
2. Females
ix. Sperm and egg comparison
1. Sperm
2. Egg
Chapter 16, Reproductive System, Part A
Chapter 16: Reproductive System
Part A: Male System
1. Gonads
a. Primary sex organs
i. Males = testes
ii. Females = ovaries
b. Produce gametes (sex cells) and secrete hormones
i. Males = sperm (male gametes)
ii. Females = ova/eggs (female gametes)
2. Male reproductive system overview
a. Testes (2)
b. Duct system—transport sperm:
i. Epididymis (2)
ii. Ductus deferens = vas deferens (2)
iii. Urethra (1)
c. Accessory organs
i. Seminal vesicles (2)
ii. Prostate (1)
iii. Bulbourethral glands (2)
d. External genitalia
i. Penis
ii. Scrotum
3. Specialized structures
a. Testes
i. Coverings
1. Tunica albuginea—capsule that surrounds each testis
2. Septa (singular = septum)—extensions of the capsule; divide testes into lobules
ii. Internal structure
1. Lobules contain one to four seminiferous tubules
a. Tightly coiled structures
b. Function as sperm-forming factories
2. Sperm travels through the rete teswtis to the epididymis
3. Interstitial cells in the s.t.’s produce androgens (testosterone)
a. Castration—removal of testes
b. Duct system
i. Epididymis
1. Comma shaped, tightly coiled tube
2. Functions to mature and store sperm cells (at least 20 days)
3. Expels sperm with the contraction of muscles in walls to the vas deferens
ii. Vas deferens
1. Carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
2. Passes through the inguinal canal and over the bladder
3. Moves sperm by peristalsis
4. Spermatic cord—ductus deferns, blood vessels, and nerves in a connective tissue sheath
5. Ends in the ejaculatory duct which unites with the urethra
6. Ejaculation—smooth muscle in the walls of the vas create peristaltic waves to squeeze sperm foward
7. Vasectomy—cutting of the ductus deferens at the level of the testes to prevent transportation of sperm
iii. Urethra
1. Extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip of the penis
2. Carries both urine and sperm
3. Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct
c. Semen
i. Mixture of and accessory gland secretions
ii. Advantages of accessory gland secretions:
1. Fructose provides energy for sperm cells
2. Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic envioronment of vagina
3. Semen inhibits bacteria
4. Elements of semen enhance sperm motility
d. Accessory organs
i. Seminal vesicle
1. Located at the base of the bladder
2. Produces thick, yellowish secretion (60% of semen)
3. Contains:
a. Fructose (sugar)
b. Vitamin C
c. Other substances that nourish and activate sperm
ii. Prostate
1. Encircles the upper part of the urethra
2. Secretes milky fluid that helps to activate sperm, enters the urethra through several small ducts
3. Enlarged prostate constricts flow through urethra
iii. Bulbourethral gland
1. Pea-sized gland inferior to the prostate
2. Produces thick, clear mucus that
a. Cleanses the urethra of acidic urine
b. Serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse
c. Secreted into the penile urethra
e. External genitalia
i. Scrotum
1. Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen
2. Maintains testes at 3oC (5oF) lower than normal body temperature to protect sperm viability
ii. Penis
1. Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract
2. Regions of the penis
a. Shaft—with erectile tissue
b. Glans penis (enlarged tip)--sensitivity
c. Prepuce = foreskin
i. Folded cuff of skin around proximal end
ii. Often removed
3. Internal
a. Three areas of spongy tissue
b. Erections occur
4. Spermatogenesis
a. Overview
i. Production of sperm
ii. Begins at puberty and continues throughout life
iii. Occurs in the seminiferous tubules
b. Spermatogonia = stem cells undergo rapid mitosis to produce more stem cells before puberty
i. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) modifies cell division
1. One cell produced is a stem cell, called a type A daughter cell
2. The other cell produced becomes a primary spermatocyte, called a type B daughter cell
ii. Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis
1. One primary spermatocyte produces four haploid spermatids
2. Spermatids—23 chromosomes (half as much material as other body cells)
c. Human life cycle
i. Union of a sperm (n or 23 chromosomes) with an egg (23 chromosomes) creates a zygote (2n or 46 chromosomes)
1. N + N =
d. Spermiogenesis
i. Late spermatids develop distinct regions:
ii. Sperm cells result
iii. Entire spermatogenesis process
e. Sperm cell anatomy
i. The only
ii. Three parts
1. Head
a. Contains
b. Acrosome
c. Breaks down and releases
2. Midpiece
3. Tail
f. Testosterone production
i. The most important
ii. Produced in
iii. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
1. This causes
iv. Functions of testosterone
1. Stimulates
2. Underlies
3. Causes
a. Deepening
b. Increased
c. Enlargement
d. Thickening
Part A: Male System
1. Gonads
a. Primary sex organs
i. Males = testes
ii. Females = ovaries
b. Produce gametes (sex cells) and secrete hormones
i. Males = sperm (male gametes)
ii. Females = ova/eggs (female gametes)
2. Male reproductive system overview
a. Testes (2)
b. Duct system—transport sperm:
i. Epididymis (2)
ii. Ductus deferens = vas deferens (2)
iii. Urethra (1)
c. Accessory organs
i. Seminal vesicles (2)
ii. Prostate (1)
iii. Bulbourethral glands (2)
d. External genitalia
i. Penis
ii. Scrotum
3. Specialized structures
a. Testes
i. Coverings
1. Tunica albuginea—capsule that surrounds each testis
2. Septa (singular = septum)—extensions of the capsule; divide testes into lobules
ii. Internal structure
1. Lobules contain one to four seminiferous tubules
a. Tightly coiled structures
b. Function as sperm-forming factories
2. Sperm travels through the rete teswtis to the epididymis
3. Interstitial cells in the s.t.’s produce androgens (testosterone)
a. Castration—removal of testes
b. Duct system
i. Epididymis
1. Comma shaped, tightly coiled tube
2. Functions to mature and store sperm cells (at least 20 days)
3. Expels sperm with the contraction of muscles in walls to the vas deferens
ii. Vas deferens
1. Carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
2. Passes through the inguinal canal and over the bladder
3. Moves sperm by peristalsis
4. Spermatic cord—ductus deferns, blood vessels, and nerves in a connective tissue sheath
5. Ends in the ejaculatory duct which unites with the urethra
6. Ejaculation—smooth muscle in the walls of the vas create peristaltic waves to squeeze sperm foward
7. Vasectomy—cutting of the ductus deferens at the level of the testes to prevent transportation of sperm
iii. Urethra
1. Extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip of the penis
2. Carries both urine and sperm
3. Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct
c. Semen
i. Mixture of and accessory gland secretions
ii. Advantages of accessory gland secretions:
1. Fructose provides energy for sperm cells
2. Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic envioronment of vagina
3. Semen inhibits bacteria
4. Elements of semen enhance sperm motility
d. Accessory organs
i. Seminal vesicle
1. Located at the base of the bladder
2. Produces thick, yellowish secretion (60% of semen)
3. Contains:
a. Fructose (sugar)
b. Vitamin C
c. Other substances that nourish and activate sperm
ii. Prostate
1. Encircles the upper part of the urethra
2. Secretes milky fluid that helps to activate sperm, enters the urethra through several small ducts
3. Enlarged prostate constricts flow through urethra
iii. Bulbourethral gland
1. Pea-sized gland inferior to the prostate
2. Produces thick, clear mucus that
a. Cleanses the urethra of acidic urine
b. Serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse
c. Secreted into the penile urethra
e. External genitalia
i. Scrotum
1. Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen
2. Maintains testes at 3oC (5oF) lower than normal body temperature to protect sperm viability
ii. Penis
1. Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract
2. Regions of the penis
a. Shaft—with erectile tissue
b. Glans penis (enlarged tip)--sensitivity
c. Prepuce = foreskin
i. Folded cuff of skin around proximal end
ii. Often removed
3. Internal
a. Three areas of spongy tissue
b. Erections occur
4. Spermatogenesis
a. Overview
i. Production of sperm
ii. Begins at puberty and continues throughout life
iii. Occurs in the seminiferous tubules
b. Spermatogonia = stem cells undergo rapid mitosis to produce more stem cells before puberty
i. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) modifies cell division
1. One cell produced is a stem cell, called a type A daughter cell
2. The other cell produced becomes a primary spermatocyte, called a type B daughter cell
ii. Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis
1. One primary spermatocyte produces four haploid spermatids
2. Spermatids—23 chromosomes (half as much material as other body cells)
c. Human life cycle
i. Union of a sperm (n or 23 chromosomes) with an egg (23 chromosomes) creates a zygote (2n or 46 chromosomes)
1. N + N =
d. Spermiogenesis
i. Late spermatids develop distinct regions:
ii. Sperm cells result
iii. Entire spermatogenesis process
e. Sperm cell anatomy
i. The only
ii. Three parts
1. Head
a. Contains
b. Acrosome
c. Breaks down and releases
2. Midpiece
3. Tail
f. Testosterone production
i. The most important
ii. Produced in
iii. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
1. This causes
iv. Functions of testosterone
1. Stimulates
2. Underlies
3. Causes
a. Deepening
b. Increased
c. Enlargement
d. Thickening
Chapter 15, Urinary System, Part B
Chapter 15: The Urinary System
Part B
1. Urinary structures
a. Ureters
i. Slender tubes attach each kidney to the bladder
ii. Run from renal pelvis to the posterior aspect of the bladder
iii. Behind the peritoneum
iv. Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport
b. Urinary bladder
i. Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac
ii. Temporary stores urine
iii. Trigone—triangular region of the bladder base
iv. Three openings
1. Two from the ureters
2. One to the urethra
v. In males, Prostate gland surrounds the neck of the bladder (and urethra)
vi. Bladder wall
1. Three layers of smooth muscle called Detrusor muscle
2. Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
3. Walls are thick and folded in an Empty bladder
4. Bladder expansion, bladder can expand significantly without increasing internal pressure
vii. Capacity
1. Moderately full bladder is about 5 inches long and holds about 500 mL of urine
2. Maximum of holding twice that amount of urine
c. Urethra
i. Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body by peristalsis
ii. Urine release is controlled by two sphincters:
1. Internal urethral sphincter
a. Involuntary and made of smooth muscle
2. External urethral sphincter
a. Voluntary and made if skeletal muscles
iii. Gender differences
1. Length: females more likely to get bladder infections
a. Females is 3-4 cm (1 inch)
b. Males is 20 cm (8 inches)
2. Location
a. Female—along wall of the vagina
b. Male—through the prostate and penis
3. Function
a. Female—only carries urine
b. Male—carries urine and is a passageway for sperm cells
2. Micturition = peeing
a. Both sphincters muscles must open to allow voiding
b. Internal urethral sphincter sphincter is relaxed after stretching of the bladder
c. Pelvic nerves pelvic nerves initiate bladder to go into reflex contractions
d. Urine is forced past the internal urethra sphincter and the person feels the urge to void
e. External urethral sphincter must be voluntarily relaxed to void
3. Fluid, electrolyte, acid-base balance
a. Blood composition: depends on three factors:
i. Diet
ii. Cellular metabolism
iii. Urine output
iv. Four roles of kidneys in maintaining blood composition:
1. Excretion of nitrogen-containing wastes (previously discussed)
2. Maintain water balance of the blood
3. Maintain electrolyte balance of the blood
4. Ensure proper blood pH
b. Water balance
i. Normal amount in body by mass
1. Young adult female = 50%
2. Young adult male = 60%
3. Babies = 75%
4. The elderly = 45%
5. Universal solvent
ii. Distribution of body fluid
1. Intracellular (ICF)
a. Fluid inside cells
b. About two-thirds of body fluid
2. Extracellular (ECF)
a. Fluid outside cells
b. Interstitial fluid
c. Blood plasma
iii. Link between water and salt
1. Solutes in the body include electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium ions
2. Changes in electrolyte balance causes water to move from one compartment to another (osmosis)
a. Alters blood volume and blood pressure
b. Impairs the activity of cells
iv. Water in = water out
1. Sources for water intake
a. Ingested foods and fluids
b. Water produced from metabolic processes (~10%)
c. Thirst mechanism is the driving force for water intake
2. Sources for water output
a. Vaporization out of the lungs
b. Lost in perspiration
c. Leaves the body in the feces
d. Urine production
3. Dilute urine is produced if water intake is excessive
4. Concentrated urine (less urine) is produced if large amounts of water are lost
5. Proper Electrolyte concentrations must be present
v. Regulation of water and electrolyte reabsorption
1. Osmoreceptors: (cells in the hypothalamus)
a. React to changes in blood composition by becoming more active
2. Hormones
a. ADH = Antidiuretic hormone
i. Prevents excessive water loss in urine
ii. Causes the kidney’s collecting ducts to reabsorb more water
iii. Alcohol suppresses ADH, causing urination
iv. Diabetes insipidus
1. When ADH is not released
2. Causes huge outputs of dilute urine
b. Aldosterone
i. From adrenal cortex
ii. Regulates sodium ion content of ECF
1. Sodium is the electrolyte most responsible for osmotic water flows
iii. Promotes reabsorption of sodium ions
1. Water follows salt
c. Rennin-angiotensin mechanism
i. Juxtaglomerular (JG) apparatus
1. Cells stimulated by
2. Rennin produces
3. Angiotensin II causes
4. Results in
c. Maintaining acid-base balance in blood
i. Blood pH between
1. Alkalosis =
2. Acidosis =
3. Physiological acidosis =
ii. Body acids
1. P , L, A
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Ammonia
4. Acid-base control systems/organs
a. Kidneys
b. Respiration
c. Blood buffers
i. Acids =
ii. Strong acids =
iii. Weak acids =
iv. Bases =
v. Strong bases =
vi. Weak bases =
vii. Action
1. Bind to H+
2. Release H+
viii. Three major systems
1. Protein
2. Phosphate
3. Bicarbonate
a. H2CO3 and NaHCO3
b. Carbonic acid
c. Bicarbonate ions
d. HCl + NaHCO3 H2CO3 + NaCl
4. Developmental aspects of the urinary system
a. Early life
i. Functional kidneys
ii. Newborn
1. Bladder
2. Urine
3. Void
iii. Young children
1. Control of voluntary sphincter
2. Nighttime control
3. Bladder infections
iv. Elderly
1. Bladder changes
2. Associated problems
a. Urgency
b. Frequency
c. Nocturia
d. Incontinence
e. Urinary retention
Part B
1. Urinary structures
a. Ureters
i. Slender tubes attach each kidney to the bladder
ii. Run from renal pelvis to the posterior aspect of the bladder
iii. Behind the peritoneum
iv. Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport
b. Urinary bladder
i. Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac
ii. Temporary stores urine
iii. Trigone—triangular region of the bladder base
iv. Three openings
1. Two from the ureters
2. One to the urethra
v. In males, Prostate gland surrounds the neck of the bladder (and urethra)
vi. Bladder wall
1. Three layers of smooth muscle called Detrusor muscle
2. Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
3. Walls are thick and folded in an Empty bladder
4. Bladder expansion, bladder can expand significantly without increasing internal pressure
vii. Capacity
1. Moderately full bladder is about 5 inches long and holds about 500 mL of urine
2. Maximum of holding twice that amount of urine
c. Urethra
i. Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body by peristalsis
ii. Urine release is controlled by two sphincters:
1. Internal urethral sphincter
a. Involuntary and made of smooth muscle
2. External urethral sphincter
a. Voluntary and made if skeletal muscles
iii. Gender differences
1. Length: females more likely to get bladder infections
a. Females is 3-4 cm (1 inch)
b. Males is 20 cm (8 inches)
2. Location
a. Female—along wall of the vagina
b. Male—through the prostate and penis
3. Function
a. Female—only carries urine
b. Male—carries urine and is a passageway for sperm cells
2. Micturition = peeing
a. Both sphincters muscles must open to allow voiding
b. Internal urethral sphincter sphincter is relaxed after stretching of the bladder
c. Pelvic nerves pelvic nerves initiate bladder to go into reflex contractions
d. Urine is forced past the internal urethra sphincter and the person feels the urge to void
e. External urethral sphincter must be voluntarily relaxed to void
3. Fluid, electrolyte, acid-base balance
a. Blood composition: depends on three factors:
i. Diet
ii. Cellular metabolism
iii. Urine output
iv. Four roles of kidneys in maintaining blood composition:
1. Excretion of nitrogen-containing wastes (previously discussed)
2. Maintain water balance of the blood
3. Maintain electrolyte balance of the blood
4. Ensure proper blood pH
b. Water balance
i. Normal amount in body by mass
1. Young adult female = 50%
2. Young adult male = 60%
3. Babies = 75%
4. The elderly = 45%
5. Universal solvent
ii. Distribution of body fluid
1. Intracellular (ICF)
a. Fluid inside cells
b. About two-thirds of body fluid
2. Extracellular (ECF)
a. Fluid outside cells
b. Interstitial fluid
c. Blood plasma
iii. Link between water and salt
1. Solutes in the body include electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium ions
2. Changes in electrolyte balance causes water to move from one compartment to another (osmosis)
a. Alters blood volume and blood pressure
b. Impairs the activity of cells
iv. Water in = water out
1. Sources for water intake
a. Ingested foods and fluids
b. Water produced from metabolic processes (~10%)
c. Thirst mechanism is the driving force for water intake
2. Sources for water output
a. Vaporization out of the lungs
b. Lost in perspiration
c. Leaves the body in the feces
d. Urine production
3. Dilute urine is produced if water intake is excessive
4. Concentrated urine (less urine) is produced if large amounts of water are lost
5. Proper Electrolyte concentrations must be present
v. Regulation of water and electrolyte reabsorption
1. Osmoreceptors: (cells in the hypothalamus)
a. React to changes in blood composition by becoming more active
2. Hormones
a. ADH = Antidiuretic hormone
i. Prevents excessive water loss in urine
ii. Causes the kidney’s collecting ducts to reabsorb more water
iii. Alcohol suppresses ADH, causing urination
iv. Diabetes insipidus
1. When ADH is not released
2. Causes huge outputs of dilute urine
b. Aldosterone
i. From adrenal cortex
ii. Regulates sodium ion content of ECF
1. Sodium is the electrolyte most responsible for osmotic water flows
iii. Promotes reabsorption of sodium ions
1. Water follows salt
c. Rennin-angiotensin mechanism
i. Juxtaglomerular (JG) apparatus
1. Cells stimulated by
2. Rennin produces
3. Angiotensin II causes
4. Results in
c. Maintaining acid-base balance in blood
i. Blood pH between
1. Alkalosis =
2. Acidosis =
3. Physiological acidosis =
ii. Body acids
1. P , L, A
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Ammonia
4. Acid-base control systems/organs
a. Kidneys
b. Respiration
c. Blood buffers
i. Acids =
ii. Strong acids =
iii. Weak acids =
iv. Bases =
v. Strong bases =
vi. Weak bases =
vii. Action
1. Bind to H+
2. Release H+
viii. Three major systems
1. Protein
2. Phosphate
3. Bicarbonate
a. H2CO3 and NaHCO3
b. Carbonic acid
c. Bicarbonate ions
d. HCl + NaHCO3 H2CO3 + NaCl
4. Developmental aspects of the urinary system
a. Early life
i. Functional kidneys
ii. Newborn
1. Bladder
2. Urine
3. Void
iii. Young children
1. Control of voluntary sphincter
2. Nighttime control
3. Bladder infections
iv. Elderly
1. Bladder changes
2. Associated problems
a. Urgency
b. Frequency
c. Nocturia
d. Incontinence
e. Urinary retention
Chapter 15, Urinary System, Part A
Chapter 15: Urinary System
Part A: Kidneys & Urine
1. Functions of the urinary system
a. Elimination of waste products:
i. Nitrogenous wastes: urea, uric acid, ammonia
ii. Toxins—harmful or fatal in small doses
iii. Drugs—have specific and significant effects on the cells
b. Regulate aspects of homeostasis
i. Water balance—osmosis
ii. Electrolytes: ions such as Na, Ca, Mg, Cl
iii. Acid-base balance in the blood
iv. BP = blood pressure
v. RBC = red blood cell production
vi. Activation of vitamin D
2. Organs of the system
a. Kidneys—where blood is actively processed
i. Renal=kidney
b. Ureters—tubes draining kidneys
c. Urinary bladder—urine storage
d. Urethra—from bladder to exterior of body
3. Kidneys
a. Location
i. Retroperitoneal = against the dorsal body wall
ii. Level of the T12 to L3 vertebrae
iii. Right kidney is slightly lower than the left (due to the position of the liver)
b. Features
i. Shape
ii. Renal hilum—a medical indentation where several structures enter or exit the kidney (ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves)
iii. Adrenal gland sits atop each kidney
c. Coverings
i. Fibrous capsule
• Surrounds each kidney—connective tissue
ii. Perirenal fat capsule
• Surrounds the kidney and cushions against blows
iii. Renal fascia
• Outermost capsule that helps hold the kidney in place against the muscles of the trunk wall
d. Anatomical regions – renal:
i. Cortex—outer region
ii. Medulla—inside the cortex
iii. Pelvis—inner collecting tube, like a funnel
e. Internal structures
i. Renal or medullary pyramids—triangular regions of tissue in the medulla
ii. Renal columns—extensions of cortex-like material inward that separates the pyramids
iii. Renal calyces (calyx)—cup-shaped structures that funnel urine towards the renal pelvis
f. Blood supply
i. 25% of the total blood supply of the body passes through the kidneys each minute
ii. Renal artery provides each kidney with arterial blood supply
iii. Arterioles and capillary beds – details below
• Renal artery divides
4. Nephrons
a. Structural and functional units of the kidneys
b. Over a million in each kidney
c. Responsible for forming urine
d. Main structures of the nephrons:
i. Glomerulus—ball of capillaries
ii. Renal tubule—kidney filtering tubes
e. Anatomy (Glomerulus)
i. Knot of capillaries
ii. Capillaries are covered with Podocytes from the renal tube
iii. Glomerulus sits within a glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule (the first part of the renal tubule)
iv. Renal tubule extends from glomerular capsule and ends at the collecting duct:
• Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
• Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
• Loop of Henle—deep into medulla
• Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
f. Types
i. Cortical nephrons
• Located entirely in the cortext
• Includes most nephrons
ii. Juxtamedullary nephrons
• Found at the boundary of the cortex and medulla
• Extend deeper into kidney
g. Collecting ducts
i. Receives urine from many nephrons
ii. Runs through the medullary pyramids
iii. Delivers urine into the calyces and renal pelvis
h. Capillary beds (2 sets)
i. Glomerulus
• Arterioles leading in and out
a. Afferent arteriole—comes in
b. Efferent arteriole—goes out
• Specialized for filtration
• High pressure forces fluid and solutes out of blood and into the glomerular capsule
ii. Peritubular
• Arise from efferent arteriole of the glomerulus
• Normal, low Pressure capillaries
• Adapted for absorption instead of filtration
• Cling close to the renal tubule
5. Urine formation
a. Glomerular filtration
i. Nonselective passive process
ii. Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced through capillary walls
iii. Proteins and blood cells are normally too large to pass through the filtration membrane
iv. Filtrate is collected in the glomerular capsule and leaves via the renal tubule
b. Tubular reabsorption
i. Peritubular capillaries reabsorb useful substances:
• Water
• Glucose
• Amino Acids
• Ions
ii. Some reabsorption is passive, most is active
iii. Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule
iv. Materials not reabsorbed
• Nitrogenous waste products:
a. Urea—protein breakdown
b. Uric acid—nucleic acid breakdown
c. Creatinine—associated with creatine metabolism in muscles
c. Tubular secretion = reabsorption in reverse
i. Movement from the peritubular capillaries into the renal tubules
ii. Examples
• Hydrogen and potassium ions
• Creatinine
• H+, K+, creatinine, drugs, pH control
iii. Materials left in the renal tubule move toward the ureter
d. Urine
i. Characteristics
• Yellow color due to the pigment urochrom (from the destruction of hemoglobin) and solutes
a. Concentration
• Odor—slightly aromatic
• Sterile—kills many bacteria becase
• Normal pH of around 6
• Specific gravity = density
a. 1.001 to 1.035
• Normal production in 24 hours, about 1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine are produced
• Urine vs. filtrate
a. Filtrate = contains everything that blood plasma does (except proteins)
b. Urine = is what remains after the filotrate has lost most of its water, nutrients, and necessary ions.
ii. Contains substances less valuable or harmful to the body:
• Nitrogenous wastes
iii. Does not contain things that are valuable or are too large to diffuse through membranes:
Part A: Kidneys & Urine
1. Functions of the urinary system
a. Elimination of waste products:
i. Nitrogenous wastes: urea, uric acid, ammonia
ii. Toxins—harmful or fatal in small doses
iii. Drugs—have specific and significant effects on the cells
b. Regulate aspects of homeostasis
i. Water balance—osmosis
ii. Electrolytes: ions such as Na, Ca, Mg, Cl
iii. Acid-base balance in the blood
iv. BP = blood pressure
v. RBC = red blood cell production
vi. Activation of vitamin D
2. Organs of the system
a. Kidneys—where blood is actively processed
i. Renal=kidney
b. Ureters—tubes draining kidneys
c. Urinary bladder—urine storage
d. Urethra—from bladder to exterior of body
3. Kidneys
a. Location
i. Retroperitoneal = against the dorsal body wall
ii. Level of the T12 to L3 vertebrae
iii. Right kidney is slightly lower than the left (due to the position of the liver)
b. Features
i. Shape
ii. Renal hilum—a medical indentation where several structures enter or exit the kidney (ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves)
iii. Adrenal gland sits atop each kidney
c. Coverings
i. Fibrous capsule
• Surrounds each kidney—connective tissue
ii. Perirenal fat capsule
• Surrounds the kidney and cushions against blows
iii. Renal fascia
• Outermost capsule that helps hold the kidney in place against the muscles of the trunk wall
d. Anatomical regions – renal:
i. Cortex—outer region
ii. Medulla—inside the cortex
iii. Pelvis—inner collecting tube, like a funnel
e. Internal structures
i. Renal or medullary pyramids—triangular regions of tissue in the medulla
ii. Renal columns—extensions of cortex-like material inward that separates the pyramids
iii. Renal calyces (calyx)—cup-shaped structures that funnel urine towards the renal pelvis
f. Blood supply
i. 25% of the total blood supply of the body passes through the kidneys each minute
ii. Renal artery provides each kidney with arterial blood supply
iii. Arterioles and capillary beds – details below
• Renal artery divides
4. Nephrons
a. Structural and functional units of the kidneys
b. Over a million in each kidney
c. Responsible for forming urine
d. Main structures of the nephrons:
i. Glomerulus—ball of capillaries
ii. Renal tubule—kidney filtering tubes
e. Anatomy (Glomerulus)
i. Knot of capillaries
ii. Capillaries are covered with Podocytes from the renal tube
iii. Glomerulus sits within a glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule (the first part of the renal tubule)
iv. Renal tubule extends from glomerular capsule and ends at the collecting duct:
• Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
• Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
• Loop of Henle—deep into medulla
• Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
f. Types
i. Cortical nephrons
• Located entirely in the cortext
• Includes most nephrons
ii. Juxtamedullary nephrons
• Found at the boundary of the cortex and medulla
• Extend deeper into kidney
g. Collecting ducts
i. Receives urine from many nephrons
ii. Runs through the medullary pyramids
iii. Delivers urine into the calyces and renal pelvis
h. Capillary beds (2 sets)
i. Glomerulus
• Arterioles leading in and out
a. Afferent arteriole—comes in
b. Efferent arteriole—goes out
• Specialized for filtration
• High pressure forces fluid and solutes out of blood and into the glomerular capsule
ii. Peritubular
• Arise from efferent arteriole of the glomerulus
• Normal, low Pressure capillaries
• Adapted for absorption instead of filtration
• Cling close to the renal tubule
5. Urine formation
a. Glomerular filtration
i. Nonselective passive process
ii. Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced through capillary walls
iii. Proteins and blood cells are normally too large to pass through the filtration membrane
iv. Filtrate is collected in the glomerular capsule and leaves via the renal tubule
b. Tubular reabsorption
i. Peritubular capillaries reabsorb useful substances:
• Water
• Glucose
• Amino Acids
• Ions
ii. Some reabsorption is passive, most is active
iii. Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule
iv. Materials not reabsorbed
• Nitrogenous waste products:
a. Urea—protein breakdown
b. Uric acid—nucleic acid breakdown
c. Creatinine—associated with creatine metabolism in muscles
c. Tubular secretion = reabsorption in reverse
i. Movement from the peritubular capillaries into the renal tubules
ii. Examples
• Hydrogen and potassium ions
• Creatinine
• H+, K+, creatinine, drugs, pH control
iii. Materials left in the renal tubule move toward the ureter
d. Urine
i. Characteristics
• Yellow color due to the pigment urochrom (from the destruction of hemoglobin) and solutes
a. Concentration
• Odor—slightly aromatic
• Sterile—kills many bacteria becase
• Normal pH of around 6
• Specific gravity = density
a. 1.001 to 1.035
• Normal production in 24 hours, about 1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine are produced
• Urine vs. filtrate
a. Filtrate = contains everything that blood plasma does (except proteins)
b. Urine = is what remains after the filotrate has lost most of its water, nutrients, and necessary ions.
ii. Contains substances less valuable or harmful to the body:
• Nitrogenous wastes
iii. Does not contain things that are valuable or are too large to diffuse through membranes:
Chapter 14, Digestive System, Part B
Chapter 14: Digestive System & Nutrition: Part B
1. Accessory organs
a. Teeth
b. Salivary glands
c. Pancreas
d. Liver
e. Gall bladder
2. Teeth classification
a. Incisors - cutting
b. Canines – tearing or piercing
c. Premolars - grinding
d. Molars - grinding
3. Salivary glands – three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the mouth:
a. Parotid glands – largest, near ear
b. Submandibular glands – under jaw
c. Sublingual glands – under tongue
d. Saliva
i. Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
1. Mucus
2. Serous
ii. Helps to form a food bolus
iii. Contains salivary amylases to begin starch digestion
iv. Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
4. Deglutition = swallowing
a. Buccal phase
i. Voluntary
ii. Occurs in the mouth
iii. Food is formed into a bolus
iv. The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the tongue
b. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
i. Involuntary transport of the bolus
ii. Passageways blocked (except to the stomach)
iii. Tongue blocks off the mouth
iv. Soft palate (uvula) blocks the nasopharynx
v. Epiglottis blocks the larynx
vi. Peristalsis moves the bolus towards the stomach
vii. Cardio-esophageal sphincter
5. Pancreas
a. Posterior to the parietal peritoneum
b. Extends across the abdomen from the spleen to the duodenum
c. Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food
d. Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
e. Alkaline fluid (basic) introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chime coming from stomach
f. Hormones produced by the pancreas:
i. Insulin – lower blood sugar; sugar into cells
ii. Glucagon – raises blood sugar; liver; glycogen
6. Liver
a. Size – largest gland in the body
b. Location – located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
c. Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall
d. Connected to the gallbladder via the common hepatic duct
e. Produces bile
i. Salts
ii. Pigments
iii. Function
7. Gall bladder
a. Structure & location
i. Sac found in hollow fossa of liver
b. When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the cystic duct for storage in the gallbladder.
c. When digestion of fatty food is occurring, bile is introduced into the duodenum from the gallbladder
d. Gallstones are crystallized cholesterol which can cause blockages
8. Functions to accomplish digestion
a. Ingestion—getting food into the mouth
b. Propulsion—moving foods from one region of the digestive system to another
c. Peristalsis—alternating waves of contraction and relaxation that squeezes food along the GI (gastro intestinal) tract
d. Segmentation—moving materials back and forth to aid with mixing in the small intestine
e. Food breakdown as Mechanical digestion
i. Examples:
1. Mixing food in the mouth by the tongue
2. Churning food in the stomach
3. Segmentation in the small intestine
4. Mechanical digestion exposes surface area of food for further breakdown by enzymes
f. Chemical digestion
i. Enzymes break down food molecules into their building blocks
ii. Each major food group uses different enzymes:
1. Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
2. Proteins are broken to amino acids
3. Lipids are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
g. Absorption
i. End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph capillaries (thin walls)
h. Defecation
i. Elimination of indigestible substances from the GI tract in the form of feces
ii. Also: bacteria, bile pigments
9. Nutrition
a. Nutrients (food)—substance used by the body for growth, maintenance, and repair
i. Major nutrients
1. Carbohydrates: sugars, starches: energy
2. Lipids: fats, oils, waxes: energy, structure
3. Proteins: energy, structure, enzymes
4. Water : no energy, body solvent
ii. Minor nutrients
1. Vitamins: coenzymes, metaabolism
2. Minerals: inorganic, assist physiology, anatomy
b. USDA food guide pyramid
1. Accessory organs
a. Teeth
b. Salivary glands
c. Pancreas
d. Liver
e. Gall bladder
2. Teeth classification
a. Incisors - cutting
b. Canines – tearing or piercing
c. Premolars - grinding
d. Molars - grinding
3. Salivary glands – three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the mouth:
a. Parotid glands – largest, near ear
b. Submandibular glands – under jaw
c. Sublingual glands – under tongue
d. Saliva
i. Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
1. Mucus
2. Serous
ii. Helps to form a food bolus
iii. Contains salivary amylases to begin starch digestion
iv. Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
4. Deglutition = swallowing
a. Buccal phase
i. Voluntary
ii. Occurs in the mouth
iii. Food is formed into a bolus
iv. The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the tongue
b. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
i. Involuntary transport of the bolus
ii. Passageways blocked (except to the stomach)
iii. Tongue blocks off the mouth
iv. Soft palate (uvula) blocks the nasopharynx
v. Epiglottis blocks the larynx
vi. Peristalsis moves the bolus towards the stomach
vii. Cardio-esophageal sphincter
5. Pancreas
a. Posterior to the parietal peritoneum
b. Extends across the abdomen from the spleen to the duodenum
c. Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food
d. Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
e. Alkaline fluid (basic) introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chime coming from stomach
f. Hormones produced by the pancreas:
i. Insulin – lower blood sugar; sugar into cells
ii. Glucagon – raises blood sugar; liver; glycogen
6. Liver
a. Size – largest gland in the body
b. Location – located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
c. Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall
d. Connected to the gallbladder via the common hepatic duct
e. Produces bile
i. Salts
ii. Pigments
iii. Function
7. Gall bladder
a. Structure & location
i. Sac found in hollow fossa of liver
b. When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the cystic duct for storage in the gallbladder.
c. When digestion of fatty food is occurring, bile is introduced into the duodenum from the gallbladder
d. Gallstones are crystallized cholesterol which can cause blockages
8. Functions to accomplish digestion
a. Ingestion—getting food into the mouth
b. Propulsion—moving foods from one region of the digestive system to another
c. Peristalsis—alternating waves of contraction and relaxation that squeezes food along the GI (gastro intestinal) tract
d. Segmentation—moving materials back and forth to aid with mixing in the small intestine
e. Food breakdown as Mechanical digestion
i. Examples:
1. Mixing food in the mouth by the tongue
2. Churning food in the stomach
3. Segmentation in the small intestine
4. Mechanical digestion exposes surface area of food for further breakdown by enzymes
f. Chemical digestion
i. Enzymes break down food molecules into their building blocks
ii. Each major food group uses different enzymes:
1. Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
2. Proteins are broken to amino acids
3. Lipids are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
g. Absorption
i. End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph capillaries (thin walls)
h. Defecation
i. Elimination of indigestible substances from the GI tract in the form of feces
ii. Also: bacteria, bile pigments
9. Nutrition
a. Nutrients (food)—substance used by the body for growth, maintenance, and repair
i. Major nutrients
1. Carbohydrates: sugars, starches: energy
2. Lipids: fats, oils, waxes: energy, structure
3. Proteins: energy, structure, enzymes
4. Water : no energy, body solvent
ii. Minor nutrients
1. Vitamins: coenzymes, metaabolism
2. Minerals: inorganic, assist physiology, anatomy
b. USDA food guide pyramid
Chapter 14, Digestive System, Part A
Chapter 14: Digestive System
1. System functions:
a. Ingestion – taking in food
b. Digestion – breaking down food both physically and chemically
c. Absorption – movement of nutrients into the bloodstream
d. Defecation – rids the body of indigestible waste
2. Two groups of organs:
a. Alimentary canal – (gastrointestinal or GI tract): continuous coiled hollow tube
i. Mouth
ii. Pharynx (throat)
iii. Esophagus (long tube)
iv. Stomach
v. Small intestine (small in width)
vi. Large intestine (large in diameter)
vii. Anus
b. Accessory organs – branches off of alimentary canal
i. Salivary glands
ii. Pancreas
iii. Liver
iv. Gall bladder
3. Mouth – oral cavity
a. Anatomy
i. Lips (labia) – protect the anterior opening
ii. Cheeks – form the lateral walls
iii. Hard palate – forms anterior roof
iv. Soft palate – forms posterior roof
v. Uvula – fleshy projection of the soft palate
vi. Vestibule – space between lips and externally and teeth and gums internally
vii. Oral cavity proper – area contained by the teeth
viii. Tongue – attached at hyoid bone and styloid processes of the skull, and by the lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth
ix. Tonsils – bacteria filters
1. Palatine – on palate
2. Lingual – base of tongue
b. Physiology
i. Mastication – (chewing) of food
ii. Mixing masticated food with liquid
iii. Tongue
1. Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
2. Allows for the sense of taste- function?
4. Pharynx = throat
a. Where food is propelled to
b. Anatomy
i. Nasopharynx – not part of the digestive system
ii. Oropharynx – posterior to oral cavity
iii. Laryngopharynx- below the oropharynx and connected to esophagus
c. Physiology
i. Mixed passageway: serves as a passageway for air and food
ii. Food movement is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle layers
1. Circular layer (outer layer)
2. Longitudinal inner layer
3. Peristalsis: food movement is by alternating contractions of the muscle layers
5. Esophagus
a. Anatomy
i. Length
ii. Runs from
b. Physiology
i. Peristalsis
ii. Food only
6. Common structure of alimentary canal organs
a. Four layers
i. Mucosa (innermost layer)
- Moist membrane consisting of
1. Surface epithelium- for absorption or secretion
2. Small amounts of connective tissue
3. Small smooth muscle layer
ii. Submucosa
- Just beneath the mucosa
- Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, glands, and lymphatics
iii. Muscularis externa- smooth muscle
- Inner circular layer
- Outer longitudinal layer
iv. Serosa- outermost layer of the wall contains fluid-producing cells:
1. Visceral peritoneum- outermost layer that is continuous with the innermost layer
2. Parietal peritoneum- innermost layer that lines the abdominopelvic cavity
7. Nervous system control
a. Two divisions of the autonomic nervous system serves the alimentary canal (autonomic nervous system)
- Function is to regulate mobility and secretory activity of the GI tract organs in coordinated way
i. Submucosal nerve plexus
ii. Myenteric nerve plexus
8. Stomach
a. Anatomy
i. Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
ii. Cardioesophageal sphincter (where food enters)
iii. Pyloric sphincter (where food empties into the small intestine)
iv. Regions
1. Cardiac – near the heart
2. Fundus – expanded portion lateral to the cardiac region
3. Body - midportion
4. Pylorus – funnel-shaped terminal end
5. Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa
6. External
a. Greater curvature – convex lateral surface
b. Lesser curvature – concave medial surface
7. Peritoneum attachment: layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach:
a. Lesser omentum – attaches the liver to the lesser curvature
b. Greater omentum – attaches the greater curvature to the posterior body wall:
i. Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and protect abdominal organs
ii. Has lymph nodules containing macrophages
b. Physiology
i. Food & water storage
1. Temporary storage tank for food (1-3 hours)
ii. Site of Water and some chemical absorption
iii. Mechanical digestion – food mixed and churned
iv. Chemical digestion – breakdown of protein begins
1. Stomach mucosa
v. Delivers Chyme (processed food) to the small intestine
c. Stomach mucosa
i. Mucosa structure: is simple columnar epithelium
ii. Mucous neck cells – produce a sticky alkaline mucus
iii. Gastric glands – situated in gastric pits and secrete gastric juice
1. Chief cells – produce protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogen pepsin)
2. Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid
3. Enteroendocrine cells – produce (hormone) gastrin
9. Small intestine
a. Overview
i. Body’s main organ for
ii. Site of
iii. Muscular tube
iv. Suspended from posterior abdominal wall
b. Subdivisions
i. Duodenum
ii. Jejunum
iii. Ileum
c. Chemical digestion – enzymes from:
i. Intestinal glands
ii. Pancreas
iii. Liver/gall bladder
d. Surface area increase mainly for absorption
e. Three structural modifications that increase surface area:
i. Villi (villus) – fingerlike structures formed by the mucosa
1. Capillaries & lacteals – for absorption (absorb food)
ii. Microvilli – tiny projections of the plasma membrane (create a brush borer appearance
iii. Plicae circulares (circular folds) – deep folds of mucosa and submucosa
10. Large intestine
a. Anatomy
i. Large = in diameter, but shorter min length, than the small intestine
ii. Frames the internal abdomen
iii. No villi present – absorb water through walls
iv. Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus which lubricates the passage of feces
v. Muscularis externa = teniae coli (three bands of muscle)
1. These bands cause the wall to pucker into haustra (pocket-like sacs)
vi. Two common problems
1. Diarrhea – food moves through too fast
2. Constipation – food moves through too slowly
b. Cecum – saclike first part of the large intestine
c. Appendix – no real function (vestigial):
i. Hangs from the cecum
ii. Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
iii. Vestigial
iv. Location
v. Fatty tissue
d. Colon
i. Ascending – travels up the right side of the abdomen
ii. Transverse – travels across the abdominal cavity
iii. Descending – travels down the left side
iv. Sigmoid – enters the pelvis
e. Rectum – where feces is stored
f. Anus – opening of the large intestine:
i. External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle (voluntary control)
ii. Internal anal sphincter – formed by smooth muscle (involuntary)
iii. These sphincters are normally closed except during defecation
1. System functions:
a. Ingestion – taking in food
b. Digestion – breaking down food both physically and chemically
c. Absorption – movement of nutrients into the bloodstream
d. Defecation – rids the body of indigestible waste
2. Two groups of organs:
a. Alimentary canal – (gastrointestinal or GI tract): continuous coiled hollow tube
i. Mouth
ii. Pharynx (throat)
iii. Esophagus (long tube)
iv. Stomach
v. Small intestine (small in width)
vi. Large intestine (large in diameter)
vii. Anus
b. Accessory organs – branches off of alimentary canal
i. Salivary glands
ii. Pancreas
iii. Liver
iv. Gall bladder
3. Mouth – oral cavity
a. Anatomy
i. Lips (labia) – protect the anterior opening
ii. Cheeks – form the lateral walls
iii. Hard palate – forms anterior roof
iv. Soft palate – forms posterior roof
v. Uvula – fleshy projection of the soft palate
vi. Vestibule – space between lips and externally and teeth and gums internally
vii. Oral cavity proper – area contained by the teeth
viii. Tongue – attached at hyoid bone and styloid processes of the skull, and by the lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth
ix. Tonsils – bacteria filters
1. Palatine – on palate
2. Lingual – base of tongue
b. Physiology
i. Mastication – (chewing) of food
ii. Mixing masticated food with liquid
iii. Tongue
1. Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
2. Allows for the sense of taste- function?
4. Pharynx = throat
a. Where food is propelled to
b. Anatomy
i. Nasopharynx – not part of the digestive system
ii. Oropharynx – posterior to oral cavity
iii. Laryngopharynx- below the oropharynx and connected to esophagus
c. Physiology
i. Mixed passageway: serves as a passageway for air and food
ii. Food movement is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle layers
1. Circular layer (outer layer)
2. Longitudinal inner layer
3. Peristalsis: food movement is by alternating contractions of the muscle layers
5. Esophagus
a. Anatomy
i. Length
ii. Runs from
b. Physiology
i. Peristalsis
ii. Food only
6. Common structure of alimentary canal organs
a. Four layers
i. Mucosa (innermost layer)
- Moist membrane consisting of
1. Surface epithelium- for absorption or secretion
2. Small amounts of connective tissue
3. Small smooth muscle layer
ii. Submucosa
- Just beneath the mucosa
- Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, glands, and lymphatics
iii. Muscularis externa- smooth muscle
- Inner circular layer
- Outer longitudinal layer
iv. Serosa- outermost layer of the wall contains fluid-producing cells:
1. Visceral peritoneum- outermost layer that is continuous with the innermost layer
2. Parietal peritoneum- innermost layer that lines the abdominopelvic cavity
7. Nervous system control
a. Two divisions of the autonomic nervous system serves the alimentary canal (autonomic nervous system)
- Function is to regulate mobility and secretory activity of the GI tract organs in coordinated way
i. Submucosal nerve plexus
ii. Myenteric nerve plexus
8. Stomach
a. Anatomy
i. Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
ii. Cardioesophageal sphincter (where food enters)
iii. Pyloric sphincter (where food empties into the small intestine)
iv. Regions
1. Cardiac – near the heart
2. Fundus – expanded portion lateral to the cardiac region
3. Body - midportion
4. Pylorus – funnel-shaped terminal end
5. Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa
6. External
a. Greater curvature – convex lateral surface
b. Lesser curvature – concave medial surface
7. Peritoneum attachment: layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach:
a. Lesser omentum – attaches the liver to the lesser curvature
b. Greater omentum – attaches the greater curvature to the posterior body wall:
i. Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and protect abdominal organs
ii. Has lymph nodules containing macrophages
b. Physiology
i. Food & water storage
1. Temporary storage tank for food (1-3 hours)
ii. Site of Water and some chemical absorption
iii. Mechanical digestion – food mixed and churned
iv. Chemical digestion – breakdown of protein begins
1. Stomach mucosa
v. Delivers Chyme (processed food) to the small intestine
c. Stomach mucosa
i. Mucosa structure: is simple columnar epithelium
ii. Mucous neck cells – produce a sticky alkaline mucus
iii. Gastric glands – situated in gastric pits and secrete gastric juice
1. Chief cells – produce protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogen pepsin)
2. Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid
3. Enteroendocrine cells – produce (hormone) gastrin
9. Small intestine
a. Overview
i. Body’s main organ for
ii. Site of
iii. Muscular tube
iv. Suspended from posterior abdominal wall
b. Subdivisions
i. Duodenum
ii. Jejunum
iii. Ileum
c. Chemical digestion – enzymes from:
i. Intestinal glands
ii. Pancreas
iii. Liver/gall bladder
d. Surface area increase mainly for absorption
e. Three structural modifications that increase surface area:
i. Villi (villus) – fingerlike structures formed by the mucosa
1. Capillaries & lacteals – for absorption (absorb food)
ii. Microvilli – tiny projections of the plasma membrane (create a brush borer appearance
iii. Plicae circulares (circular folds) – deep folds of mucosa and submucosa
10. Large intestine
a. Anatomy
i. Large = in diameter, but shorter min length, than the small intestine
ii. Frames the internal abdomen
iii. No villi present – absorb water through walls
iv. Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus which lubricates the passage of feces
v. Muscularis externa = teniae coli (three bands of muscle)
1. These bands cause the wall to pucker into haustra (pocket-like sacs)
vi. Two common problems
1. Diarrhea – food moves through too fast
2. Constipation – food moves through too slowly
b. Cecum – saclike first part of the large intestine
c. Appendix – no real function (vestigial):
i. Hangs from the cecum
ii. Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
iii. Vestigial
iv. Location
v. Fatty tissue
d. Colon
i. Ascending – travels up the right side of the abdomen
ii. Transverse – travels across the abdominal cavity
iii. Descending – travels down the left side
iv. Sigmoid – enters the pelvis
e. Rectum – where feces is stored
f. Anus – opening of the large intestine:
i. External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle (voluntary control)
ii. Internal anal sphincter – formed by smooth muscle (involuntary)
iii. These sphincters are normally closed except during defecation
Chapter 13, Respiratory System, Part B
Chapter 13 – Respiration – Part B
9. Gas exchange crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion:
a. Oxygen enters the blood
b. Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
c. Alveolar Macrophages “dust cells” add protection by picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris
d. Surfactant (a lipid molecule) coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
10. Events of respiration
a. Breathing – pulmonary ventilation—moving air in and out of the lungs (commonly called breathing)
b. External respiration—gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli:
i. Oxygen is loaded into the blood
ii. Carbon dioxide carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood
c. Respiratory gas transport—transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream
d. Internal respiration—gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries
11. Mechanics of breathing (pulmonary ventilation)
a. Completely Mechanical process that depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
b. Volume changes pressure changes: volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gases to equalize pressure:
c. Charles’ Law: P = 1/V
d. Two phases:
i. Inspiration = inhalation
1. Flow of air into lungs
ii. Expiration = exhalation
1. Air leaving lungs
iii. Yoga
e. Inspiration details
i. Two sets of muscles: diaphragm and external intercostals muscles contract
ii. The size of the thoracic cavity increases
iii. External air pulled into chest due to:
1. Increase in intrapulmonary volume
2. Decrease in gas pressure
f. Expiration details
i. Largely a passive process which depends on natural lung eleasticity
ii. As muscles relax, Air pushed out of lungs due to:
1. Decrease in intrapulmonary volume
2. Increase in gas pressure
3. Forced expiration
g. Thoracic cavity pressure
i. Negative relative to the lungs
ii. Differences between lungs & pleural space
12. Nonrespiratory gas movements – can be caused by reflexes or voluntary action
a. Coughing—clears lungs of debris
b. Sneezing—clears lungs of debris
c. Crying—emotionally induced mechanism
d. Laughing—similar to crying
e. Hiccup—sudden inspirations
f. Yawning—very deep inspiration
i. Pandiculation = yawning +stretching
g. Talking—communication
13. Respiratory volumes and capacities
a. Normal breathing moves about 500 mL of air with each breath= tidal volume (TV) = 500
i. Affected by a person’s size, sex, age, physical condition
b. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) = amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume
c. Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) = amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
i. Approximately 1200 mL
d. Residual volume (RV) = air remaining in lung after expiration
i. About 1200 mL
e. Dead space volume (DSV) = air that remains in conducting zone and never reaches alveoli
i. About 150 mL
f. Functional volume = air that actually reaches the respiratory zone
i. Usually about 350 mL, a low percentage of capacity
ii.
g. Capacities = two or more volumes together
i. Spirometer—respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer
ii. Vital capacity (VC) = TV + IRV + ERV
1. The total amount of exchangeable air
iii. Total Lung Capacity (TLC) = VC + RV
14. Respiratory sounds
a. Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
b. Two recognizable sounds can be hear with a stethoscope:
i. Bronchial sounds—produced by air rushing through trachea and bronchi
ii. Vesicular breathing sounds—soft sounds of air filling alveoli
15. External respiration details
a. Oxygen loaded into the blood:
i. The alveoli always have more oxygen than the blood
ii. Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower concentration
iii. Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
b. Carbon dioxide unloaded out of the blood:
i. Blood returning from tissues has higher concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the alveoli
ii. Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide to be exhaled
iii. Blood leaving lungs has more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than when it entered
16. Gas transport in blood
a. Oxygen transport in the blood:
i. Most oxygen attached to hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) – 98%
ii. Small dissolved amount is carried in the plasma – 2%
iii. Note - Carbon monoxide will outcompete oxygen for hemoglobin sites suffocation due to CO poisioning
b. Carbon dioxide transport in the blood:
i. Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) (acid)
ii. Small amount is carried inside red blood cells on hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma
iii. Getting out of blood:
1. HCO3- + H+ H2CO3 H2O + CO2
17. Internal respiration = exchange between
a. Opposite what happens in the lungs
i. Carbon dioxide
ii. Oxygen
18. Neural control of respiration
a. Phrenic and intercostals nerves
b. Rate and depth of breathing
i. Medulla
ii. Pons
c. Rates
i. Normal
ii. Hypernea
d. Other factors controlling breathing
i. Physical
1. Body temperature
2. Exercise
3. Talking
4. Coughing
ii. Volition
iii. Emotional factors
iv. Chemical factors
1. Getting rid of CO2
2. Oxygen levels
v. Hyperventilation
vi. Hypoventilation
9. Gas exchange crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion:
a. Oxygen enters the blood
b. Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
c. Alveolar Macrophages “dust cells” add protection by picking up bacteria, carbon particles, and other debris
d. Surfactant (a lipid molecule) coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
10. Events of respiration
a. Breathing – pulmonary ventilation—moving air in and out of the lungs (commonly called breathing)
b. External respiration—gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli:
i. Oxygen is loaded into the blood
ii. Carbon dioxide carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood
c. Respiratory gas transport—transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream
d. Internal respiration—gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries
11. Mechanics of breathing (pulmonary ventilation)
a. Completely Mechanical process that depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
b. Volume changes pressure changes: volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gases to equalize pressure:
c. Charles’ Law: P = 1/V
d. Two phases:
i. Inspiration = inhalation
1. Flow of air into lungs
ii. Expiration = exhalation
1. Air leaving lungs
iii. Yoga
e. Inspiration details
i. Two sets of muscles: diaphragm and external intercostals muscles contract
ii. The size of the thoracic cavity increases
iii. External air pulled into chest due to:
1. Increase in intrapulmonary volume
2. Decrease in gas pressure
f. Expiration details
i. Largely a passive process which depends on natural lung eleasticity
ii. As muscles relax, Air pushed out of lungs due to:
1. Decrease in intrapulmonary volume
2. Increase in gas pressure
3. Forced expiration
g. Thoracic cavity pressure
i. Negative relative to the lungs
ii. Differences between lungs & pleural space
12. Nonrespiratory gas movements – can be caused by reflexes or voluntary action
a. Coughing—clears lungs of debris
b. Sneezing—clears lungs of debris
c. Crying—emotionally induced mechanism
d. Laughing—similar to crying
e. Hiccup—sudden inspirations
f. Yawning—very deep inspiration
i. Pandiculation = yawning +stretching
g. Talking—communication
13. Respiratory volumes and capacities
a. Normal breathing moves about 500 mL of air with each breath= tidal volume (TV) = 500
i. Affected by a person’s size, sex, age, physical condition
b. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) = amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume
c. Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) = amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
i. Approximately 1200 mL
d. Residual volume (RV) = air remaining in lung after expiration
i. About 1200 mL
e. Dead space volume (DSV) = air that remains in conducting zone and never reaches alveoli
i. About 150 mL
f. Functional volume = air that actually reaches the respiratory zone
i. Usually about 350 mL, a low percentage of capacity
ii.
g. Capacities = two or more volumes together
i. Spirometer—respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer
ii. Vital capacity (VC) = TV + IRV + ERV
1. The total amount of exchangeable air
iii. Total Lung Capacity (TLC) = VC + RV
14. Respiratory sounds
a. Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
b. Two recognizable sounds can be hear with a stethoscope:
i. Bronchial sounds—produced by air rushing through trachea and bronchi
ii. Vesicular breathing sounds—soft sounds of air filling alveoli
15. External respiration details
a. Oxygen loaded into the blood:
i. The alveoli always have more oxygen than the blood
ii. Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower concentration
iii. Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
b. Carbon dioxide unloaded out of the blood:
i. Blood returning from tissues has higher concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in the alveoli
ii. Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide to be exhaled
iii. Blood leaving lungs has more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than when it entered
16. Gas transport in blood
a. Oxygen transport in the blood:
i. Most oxygen attached to hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) – 98%
ii. Small dissolved amount is carried in the plasma – 2%
iii. Note - Carbon monoxide will outcompete oxygen for hemoglobin sites suffocation due to CO poisioning
b. Carbon dioxide transport in the blood:
i. Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) (acid)
ii. Small amount is carried inside red blood cells on hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma
iii. Getting out of blood:
1. HCO3- + H+ H2CO3 H2O + CO2
17. Internal respiration = exchange between
a. Opposite what happens in the lungs
i. Carbon dioxide
ii. Oxygen
18. Neural control of respiration
a. Phrenic and intercostals nerves
b. Rate and depth of breathing
i. Medulla
ii. Pons
c. Rates
i. Normal
ii. Hypernea
d. Other factors controlling breathing
i. Physical
1. Body temperature
2. Exercise
3. Talking
4. Coughing
ii. Volition
iii. Emotional factors
iv. Chemical factors
1. Getting rid of CO2
2. Oxygen levels
v. Hyperventilation
vi. Hypoventilation
Chapter 13, Respiratory System, Part A
Chapter 13
The Respiratory System
1. Organs of the system
a. Nose
b. Pharynx
c. Larynx
d. Trachea
e. Bronchi
f. Lungs/alveoli(us)
2. Functions of the system
a. Gas exchange between blood and external environment
- Occurs in the alveoli of the lungs
- Passageways to the lungs purify, humidify, and warm the incoming air
b. Specific functions in parts of the system:
3. Nose
a. External: only externally visible part of the respiratory system
b. Nares: air enters the nose through the external nostrils (nares)
- Interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided by a nasal septum
c. Nasal cavity
i. Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface
ii. Respiratory mucosa lines the rest of the cavity:
• Moisten air
• Trap incoming foreign particles
iii. Conchae: projections in the lateral wall
1. Increase surface area and air turbulence within the nasal cavity
iv. Palate: Anterior hard palate (bone); Posterior soft palate (muscle)
v. Paranasal Sinuses
1. Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal cavity are called sinuses
2. Functions
• Lighten the skull
• Act as resonance chambers for speech
• Produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity
3. Sinuses are located in the following bones:
• Frontal bone
• Sphenoid bone
• Ethmoid bone
• Maxillary bone
4. Pharynx (Throat) muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
a. Nasopharynx- superior region behind nasal cavity
b. Oropharynx- middle region behind the mouth (passageway for air and food)
c. Laryngopharynx- inferior region attached to larynx (passageway for air and food)
d. Eustacean = auditory=pharyngotympanic tubes
e. Tonsils
i. Pharyngeal
ii. Palatine
iii. Lingual
5. Larynx (voice box)
a. Routes air and food into proper channels
b. Plays a role in speech
c. Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilage (epiglottis)
d. Cartilage
i. Thyroid: largest of the hyaline cartilages; protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
ii. Epiglottis – protects the superior opening of the larynx
• Routes food to the esophagus and air toward the trachea
• When swallowing, the epiglottis rises and forms a lid over the opening of the larynx
e. Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
i. Vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)
ii. Glottis- opening between vocal cords
6. Trachea
a. Four inches long tube connects larynx with bronchi
b. Walls are reinforced with c-shaped hyaline cartilage
c. Ciliated mucosa lines the trachea
i. Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air
ii. Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from lungs
7. Main bronchi(us)
a. Formed by division of the trachea
b. Enters the lung at the hilum (medial depression)
c. Right bronchus is wider, shorter and straighter than left
d. Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches
8. Lungs
a. Anatomy
i. Location: occupies most of the thoracic cavity
ii. The heart occupies central portion (middle wall) called mediastinum
iii. Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
iv. Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion)
v. Lobes: each lung is divided into lobes by fissures:
1. Right- three lobes
2. Left- two lobes
b. Coverings
i. Serosa covers the outer surface of the lungs:
ii. Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface
iii. Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
iv. Pleural fluid fills the area between layers of pleura to allow gliding
v. These two pleural layers resist being pulled apart
c. Bronchial tree: all but the smallest of these passageways have reinforcing cartilage in their walls
i. Bronchi divisions
1. Primary bronchi
2. Secondary bronchi
3. Tertiary bronchi
4. Bronchioles
5. Terminal bronchioles
ii. Respiratory zone
1. Respiratory bronchioles
2. Alveolar ducts
3. Alveolar sacs
4. Alveoli(us) (airs sacs)
• Site of gas exchange= alveoli only
i. Respiratory membrane = air/blood barrier
i. Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs
ii. Epithelium: thin squamous epithelial layer lines alveolar walls
iii. Blood capillaries: pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli
iv. On one side of the membrane is air and on the other side is blood flowing past
ii. Gas exchange – the ultimate goal
9. Gas exchange via diffusion only
a. Oxygen
b. Carbon dioxide
c. Macrophages
d. Surfactant
10. Events of respiration
a. Breathing
b. External respiration
i. Oxygen
ii. Carbon dioxide
c. Respiratory gas transport
d. Internal respiration
The Respiratory System
1. Organs of the system
a. Nose
b. Pharynx
c. Larynx
d. Trachea
e. Bronchi
f. Lungs/alveoli(us)
2. Functions of the system
a. Gas exchange between blood and external environment
- Occurs in the alveoli of the lungs
- Passageways to the lungs purify, humidify, and warm the incoming air
b. Specific functions in parts of the system:
3. Nose
a. External: only externally visible part of the respiratory system
b. Nares: air enters the nose through the external nostrils (nares)
- Interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided by a nasal septum
c. Nasal cavity
i. Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface
ii. Respiratory mucosa lines the rest of the cavity:
• Moisten air
• Trap incoming foreign particles
iii. Conchae: projections in the lateral wall
1. Increase surface area and air turbulence within the nasal cavity
iv. Palate: Anterior hard palate (bone); Posterior soft palate (muscle)
v. Paranasal Sinuses
1. Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal cavity are called sinuses
2. Functions
• Lighten the skull
• Act as resonance chambers for speech
• Produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity
3. Sinuses are located in the following bones:
• Frontal bone
• Sphenoid bone
• Ethmoid bone
• Maxillary bone
4. Pharynx (Throat) muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
a. Nasopharynx- superior region behind nasal cavity
b. Oropharynx- middle region behind the mouth (passageway for air and food)
c. Laryngopharynx- inferior region attached to larynx (passageway for air and food)
d. Eustacean = auditory=pharyngotympanic tubes
e. Tonsils
i. Pharyngeal
ii. Palatine
iii. Lingual
5. Larynx (voice box)
a. Routes air and food into proper channels
b. Plays a role in speech
c. Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilage (epiglottis)
d. Cartilage
i. Thyroid: largest of the hyaline cartilages; protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
ii. Epiglottis – protects the superior opening of the larynx
• Routes food to the esophagus and air toward the trachea
• When swallowing, the epiglottis rises and forms a lid over the opening of the larynx
e. Vocal folds (true vocal cords)
i. Vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)
ii. Glottis- opening between vocal cords
6. Trachea
a. Four inches long tube connects larynx with bronchi
b. Walls are reinforced with c-shaped hyaline cartilage
c. Ciliated mucosa lines the trachea
i. Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air
ii. Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from lungs
7. Main bronchi(us)
a. Formed by division of the trachea
b. Enters the lung at the hilum (medial depression)
c. Right bronchus is wider, shorter and straighter than left
d. Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches
8. Lungs
a. Anatomy
i. Location: occupies most of the thoracic cavity
ii. The heart occupies central portion (middle wall) called mediastinum
iii. Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
iv. Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion)
v. Lobes: each lung is divided into lobes by fissures:
1. Right- three lobes
2. Left- two lobes
b. Coverings
i. Serosa covers the outer surface of the lungs:
ii. Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface
iii. Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
iv. Pleural fluid fills the area between layers of pleura to allow gliding
v. These two pleural layers resist being pulled apart
c. Bronchial tree: all but the smallest of these passageways have reinforcing cartilage in their walls
i. Bronchi divisions
1. Primary bronchi
2. Secondary bronchi
3. Tertiary bronchi
4. Bronchioles
5. Terminal bronchioles
ii. Respiratory zone
1. Respiratory bronchioles
2. Alveolar ducts
3. Alveolar sacs
4. Alveoli(us) (airs sacs)
• Site of gas exchange= alveoli only
i. Respiratory membrane = air/blood barrier
i. Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs
ii. Epithelium: thin squamous epithelial layer lines alveolar walls
iii. Blood capillaries: pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli
iv. On one side of the membrane is air and on the other side is blood flowing past
ii. Gas exchange – the ultimate goal
9. Gas exchange via diffusion only
a. Oxygen
b. Carbon dioxide
c. Macrophages
d. Surfactant
10. Events of respiration
a. Breathing
b. External respiration
i. Oxygen
ii. Carbon dioxide
c. Respiratory gas transport
d. Internal respiration
Chapter 12, Lymphatic System
Chapter 12: Lymphatic System/Immunity
1. Lymphatic system
a. Two semi-independent parts
i. Lymphatic vessels
ii. Lymphoid tissues and organs
b. Lymphatic system functions
i. Transports escaped fluids back to the blood
ii. Plays essential roles in immunity
2. Lymphatic characteristics
a. Lymph—excess tissue fluid carried by lymphatic vessels
b. Properties of lymphatic vessels
i. One way system toward the heart
ii. No pump
iii. Lymph moves toward the heart
iv. Milking action of skeletal muscle
v. Rhythmic contractions of smooth muscles in vessel walls
3. Lymphatic vessels
a. Lymphatic capillaries
i. Walls overlap to form flap like mini-valves
ii. Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
iii. Capillaries anchored to connective tissue by filaments
iv. Higher pressure on the inside closes mini-valves
v. Fluid forced along the vessels
b. Lymphatic collecting vessels (like veins)
i. Collect lymph from lymph capillaries
ii. Carry lymph to and away from lymph nodes
iii. Return fluid to circulatory veins near the heart:
1. Right lymphatic duct
2. Thoracic duct
4. Lymph: contains
a. Bacteria
b. Viruses
c. Cancer cells
d. Cell debris
5. Lymph nodes
a. Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
b. Defense cells within lymph nodes:
c. Macrophages—engulf and destroy foreign substances
d. Lymphocytes—provide immune response to antigens
6. Other lymphoid organs
a. Spleen
b. Thymus—most active through early childhood
c. Tonsils
d. Peyer’s patches—attached in intestinal wall
7. Lines of defense
a. First line = skin and mucous membranes
i. Physical barrier to foreign materials
ii. Protective secretions
1. pH of skin is acidic to inhabit bacterial growth
2. sebum (oil) is toxic to bacteria
3. vaginal secretions are very acidic
b. Second line =
i. Phagocytes—cells that eat mostly bacteria
ii. Natural killer cells—contain toxic chemicals
iii. Fever—“cooks” invaders
iv. Inflammatory response—results in a chain of events leading to protection and healing
1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Swelling
4. Pain
c. Third line =
i. Immune response—immune system’s response to a threat
ii. Immunology—study of immunity
iii. Antibodies—proteins that protect from pathogens, attack antigen molecules
iv. Three aspects
1. Antigen specific—recognizes and acts against particular foreign substances
2. Systemic—not restricted to the initial infection site
3. Memory—recognizes and mounts a stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens
v. Types
1. Humoral immunity—antibody mediated immunity
a. Provided by antibodies present in body fluids
2. Cellular immunity—cell mediated immunity
a. Targets: virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of foreign graphs
1. Lymphatic system
a. Two semi-independent parts
i. Lymphatic vessels
ii. Lymphoid tissues and organs
b. Lymphatic system functions
i. Transports escaped fluids back to the blood
ii. Plays essential roles in immunity
2. Lymphatic characteristics
a. Lymph—excess tissue fluid carried by lymphatic vessels
b. Properties of lymphatic vessels
i. One way system toward the heart
ii. No pump
iii. Lymph moves toward the heart
iv. Milking action of skeletal muscle
v. Rhythmic contractions of smooth muscles in vessel walls
3. Lymphatic vessels
a. Lymphatic capillaries
i. Walls overlap to form flap like mini-valves
ii. Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
iii. Capillaries anchored to connective tissue by filaments
iv. Higher pressure on the inside closes mini-valves
v. Fluid forced along the vessels
b. Lymphatic collecting vessels (like veins)
i. Collect lymph from lymph capillaries
ii. Carry lymph to and away from lymph nodes
iii. Return fluid to circulatory veins near the heart:
1. Right lymphatic duct
2. Thoracic duct
4. Lymph: contains
a. Bacteria
b. Viruses
c. Cancer cells
d. Cell debris
5. Lymph nodes
a. Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
b. Defense cells within lymph nodes:
c. Macrophages—engulf and destroy foreign substances
d. Lymphocytes—provide immune response to antigens
6. Other lymphoid organs
a. Spleen
b. Thymus—most active through early childhood
c. Tonsils
d. Peyer’s patches—attached in intestinal wall
7. Lines of defense
a. First line = skin and mucous membranes
i. Physical barrier to foreign materials
ii. Protective secretions
1. pH of skin is acidic to inhabit bacterial growth
2. sebum (oil) is toxic to bacteria
3. vaginal secretions are very acidic
b. Second line =
i. Phagocytes—cells that eat mostly bacteria
ii. Natural killer cells—contain toxic chemicals
iii. Fever—“cooks” invaders
iv. Inflammatory response—results in a chain of events leading to protection and healing
1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Swelling
4. Pain
c. Third line =
i. Immune response—immune system’s response to a threat
ii. Immunology—study of immunity
iii. Antibodies—proteins that protect from pathogens, attack antigen molecules
iv. Three aspects
1. Antigen specific—recognizes and acts against particular foreign substances
2. Systemic—not restricted to the initial infection site
3. Memory—recognizes and mounts a stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens
v. Types
1. Humoral immunity—antibody mediated immunity
a. Provided by antibodies present in body fluids
2. Cellular immunity—cell mediated immunity
a. Targets: virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of foreign graphs
Chapter 11, The Heart, Part B
Chapter 11
Part B: (Mostly) Blood Vessels
1. The heart
a. Cardiac output (CO) defined: amount of blood pumped by each side (ventricle) of the heart in one minute
b. Stroke volume defined: volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one contraction (each heartbeat)
i. Remains relatively constant
ii. 70 mL of blood is pumped out of the left ventricle/heartbeat
c. Heart rate: 75 beats per minute
d. CO = HR x SV {CO = HR (75 beats/min) x SV (70 mL/beat)}
i. Volume of CO = 5250 mL/min
ii. Starling’s law of the heart—the more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction
iii. Changing heart rate is the most common way to change cardiac output
2. Regulation of heart rate
a. Increased heart rate by the sympathetic nervous system
i. Crisis—more blood needed
ii. Low blood pressure
iii. Hormonal control:
1. Epinephrine = adrenaline
2. Thyroxine—thyroid gland, general metabolism
iv. Exercise
v. Low blood volume
b. Decreased heart rate by the parasympathetic nervous system
i. High blood pressure or blood volume
ii. Low venous rate
3. Blood vessels = the vascular system
a. General purpose is to transport blood to the tissues and back
b. Classified by direction
i. Carry blood away from heart
1. Arteries
2. Arterioles = small arteries
ii. Exchanges between tissues and blood:
1. Capillary beds
iii. Return blood toward heart
1. Venules
2. Veins
c. Structure of walls: three layers = tunics
i. Tunic Intima (inner)
1. Endothelium—simple squamous epithelium
ii. Tunic Media
1. Smooth muscle, connectiveTissue
2. Controlled by sympathetic nervous system (not voluntary)
iii. Tunic Externa
1. Mostly fibrous connectiveTissue
d. Differences between vessels
i. Walls of Arteries are the thickest, more elastic
ii. Lumens (opening) of Veins are larger
iii. Larger veins have valves to prevent backflow
iv. Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the heart
v. Wall of Capillaries are only one cell layer think for diffusion
e. Movement of blood through
i. Arteries
ii. Veins
f. Capillary beds
i. Two types of vessels:
1. Vascular shunt—vessel directly connecting an arteriole to a venule.
2. True capillaries—exchange vessels:
ii. Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells
iii. Carbon dioxide and metabolic waste products cross into blood
iv. Materials exchanged due to concentration gradients:
1. Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood
2. Carbon dioxide and other wastes leave the cells
v. Exchange mechanisms: direct diffusion across plasma membranes, endocytosis or exocytosis
vi. Materials move through interstitial fluid to cells
1. Endocytosis
2. Exocytosis
3. Interstitial fluid
g. Major arteries: Aorta
i. Largest artery in the body
ii. Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart
iii. Regions:
1. Ascending aorta—leaves the left ventricle
2. Aortic Arch—180 degrees to the left
3. Thoracic aorta—travels downward through the thorax
4. Abdominal aorta—passes through the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity
iv. Systemic arteries
1. Arterial Branches of the aorta
v. Pulmonary
1. Branches branches of the pulmonary arteries
2. Study figure 11.12
h. Major veins
i. Systemic circulation
1. Superior and inferior vena cava enter the Right atrium:
2. Superior vena cava drains the head and arms
3. Inferior vena cava drains the lower body
ii. Pulmonary circulation
1. Pulmonary veins enter left atrium
i. Fetal circulation
i. Fetus receives exchanges of gases, nutrients, and wastes through the placenta
ii. Umbilical cord contains three vessels:
1. Umbilical vein—carries blood rich in nutrients and oxygen to the fetus
2. Umbilical arteries (2)—carry carbon dioxide and debris-laden blood from the fetus to placenta
iii. Bypass of the (nonfunctional) lungs:
1. Blood entering right atrium is shunted directly into the left atrium through the Foramen ovale (hold in septum)
2. Blood from Pulmonary artery goes directly into aorta
j. Hepatic portal circulation
i. Portal circulation—extra set of veins and capillaries
ii. Veins of hepatic portal circulation drain:
1. Digestive organs
2. Spleen
3. Pancreas
iii. Hepatic portal vein carries blood to the liver
iv. Importance of liver for nutrients
1. Maintains proper glucose, fat, and protein concentrations in blood
4. Pulse
a. Defined—pressure wave of blood
b. Unit—beats/minutes (bpm = beats per minutes)
c. Monitored at “pressure points” in arteries where pulse is easily palpated
d. Pulse Averages 70-76 bpm at rest
5. Blood pressure
a. Measurements by health professionals are made on the pressure in large arteries
b. Measured with a Sphygmomanometer
c. Systolic—pressure at the peak of the ventricular contractions
d. Diastolic—pressure when ventricles relax
e. How to write it: systolic/diastolic (120/80 mm Hg)
f. Pressure in blood vessels decreases as distance from the heart increases
g. Effects of factors
i. Affected by age, weight, time of day, exercise, body position, emotional state, genetics
ii. CO (cardiac output)—amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per minute
iii. PR (peripheral resistance)—the amount of friction as blood encounters as it flows through vessels:
1. Increased by narrowing of blood vessels and increased blood volume
iv. BP = CO x PR
v. Neural
1. Autonomic
vi. Renal =
1. Regulated by
2. Rennin
vii. Temperature
1. Heat
2. Cold
viii. Chemicals
ix. Diet
x. Genetic predisposition
h. Variations
i. Normal
1. Systolic:
2. Diastolic:
ii. Hypotension
1. Low
2. Associated
iii. Hypertension
1. High
2. Can be
Part B: (Mostly) Blood Vessels
1. The heart
a. Cardiac output (CO) defined: amount of blood pumped by each side (ventricle) of the heart in one minute
b. Stroke volume defined: volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one contraction (each heartbeat)
i. Remains relatively constant
ii. 70 mL of blood is pumped out of the left ventricle/heartbeat
c. Heart rate: 75 beats per minute
d. CO = HR x SV {CO = HR (75 beats/min) x SV (70 mL/beat)}
i. Volume of CO = 5250 mL/min
ii. Starling’s law of the heart—the more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction
iii. Changing heart rate is the most common way to change cardiac output
2. Regulation of heart rate
a. Increased heart rate by the sympathetic nervous system
i. Crisis—more blood needed
ii. Low blood pressure
iii. Hormonal control:
1. Epinephrine = adrenaline
2. Thyroxine—thyroid gland, general metabolism
iv. Exercise
v. Low blood volume
b. Decreased heart rate by the parasympathetic nervous system
i. High blood pressure or blood volume
ii. Low venous rate
3. Blood vessels = the vascular system
a. General purpose is to transport blood to the tissues and back
b. Classified by direction
i. Carry blood away from heart
1. Arteries
2. Arterioles = small arteries
ii. Exchanges between tissues and blood:
1. Capillary beds
iii. Return blood toward heart
1. Venules
2. Veins
c. Structure of walls: three layers = tunics
i. Tunic Intima (inner)
1. Endothelium—simple squamous epithelium
ii. Tunic Media
1. Smooth muscle, connectiveTissue
2. Controlled by sympathetic nervous system (not voluntary)
iii. Tunic Externa
1. Mostly fibrous connectiveTissue
d. Differences between vessels
i. Walls of Arteries are the thickest, more elastic
ii. Lumens (opening) of Veins are larger
iii. Larger veins have valves to prevent backflow
iv. Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the heart
v. Wall of Capillaries are only one cell layer think for diffusion
e. Movement of blood through
i. Arteries
ii. Veins
f. Capillary beds
i. Two types of vessels:
1. Vascular shunt—vessel directly connecting an arteriole to a venule.
2. True capillaries—exchange vessels:
ii. Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells
iii. Carbon dioxide and metabolic waste products cross into blood
iv. Materials exchanged due to concentration gradients:
1. Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood
2. Carbon dioxide and other wastes leave the cells
v. Exchange mechanisms: direct diffusion across plasma membranes, endocytosis or exocytosis
vi. Materials move through interstitial fluid to cells
1. Endocytosis
2. Exocytosis
3. Interstitial fluid
g. Major arteries: Aorta
i. Largest artery in the body
ii. Leaves from the left ventricle of the heart
iii. Regions:
1. Ascending aorta—leaves the left ventricle
2. Aortic Arch—180 degrees to the left
3. Thoracic aorta—travels downward through the thorax
4. Abdominal aorta—passes through the diaphragm into the abdominopelvic cavity
iv. Systemic arteries
1. Arterial Branches of the aorta
v. Pulmonary
1. Branches branches of the pulmonary arteries
2. Study figure 11.12
h. Major veins
i. Systemic circulation
1. Superior and inferior vena cava enter the Right atrium:
2. Superior vena cava drains the head and arms
3. Inferior vena cava drains the lower body
ii. Pulmonary circulation
1. Pulmonary veins enter left atrium
i. Fetal circulation
i. Fetus receives exchanges of gases, nutrients, and wastes through the placenta
ii. Umbilical cord contains three vessels:
1. Umbilical vein—carries blood rich in nutrients and oxygen to the fetus
2. Umbilical arteries (2)—carry carbon dioxide and debris-laden blood from the fetus to placenta
iii. Bypass of the (nonfunctional) lungs:
1. Blood entering right atrium is shunted directly into the left atrium through the Foramen ovale (hold in septum)
2. Blood from Pulmonary artery goes directly into aorta
j. Hepatic portal circulation
i. Portal circulation—extra set of veins and capillaries
ii. Veins of hepatic portal circulation drain:
1. Digestive organs
2. Spleen
3. Pancreas
iii. Hepatic portal vein carries blood to the liver
iv. Importance of liver for nutrients
1. Maintains proper glucose, fat, and protein concentrations in blood
4. Pulse
a. Defined—pressure wave of blood
b. Unit—beats/minutes (bpm = beats per minutes)
c. Monitored at “pressure points” in arteries where pulse is easily palpated
d. Pulse Averages 70-76 bpm at rest
5. Blood pressure
a. Measurements by health professionals are made on the pressure in large arteries
b. Measured with a Sphygmomanometer
c. Systolic—pressure at the peak of the ventricular contractions
d. Diastolic—pressure when ventricles relax
e. How to write it: systolic/diastolic (120/80 mm Hg)
f. Pressure in blood vessels decreases as distance from the heart increases
g. Effects of factors
i. Affected by age, weight, time of day, exercise, body position, emotional state, genetics
ii. CO (cardiac output)—amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle per minute
iii. PR (peripheral resistance)—the amount of friction as blood encounters as it flows through vessels:
1. Increased by narrowing of blood vessels and increased blood volume
iv. BP = CO x PR
v. Neural
1. Autonomic
vi. Renal =
1. Regulated by
2. Rennin
vii. Temperature
1. Heat
2. Cold
viii. Chemicals
ix. Diet
x. Genetic predisposition
h. Variations
i. Normal
1. Systolic:
2. Diastolic:
ii. Hypotension
1. Low
2. Associated
iii. Hypertension
1. High
2. Can be
Chapter 11, The Heart, Part A
Chapter 11
Part A: The Heart
1. Where is it?
a. Location—thorax between the lungs in the inferior mediastinum
b. Orientation—pointed apex directed toward left hip
c. Size—about the size of your fist
2. Coverings
a. Pericardium—a double-walled sac:
i. Fibrous pericardium is loose and superficial
ii. Serous pericardium is deep to the fibrous pericardium and composed of two layers:
1. Visceral pericardium (lines organ)
a. Next to heart; also known as the Epicardium
2. Parietal pericardium (surrounds chamber)
a. Outside layer that lines the inner surface of the fibrous pericardium
b. Serous fluid fills the space between the layers of pericardium
3. Heart Structure
a. The heart wall:
i. Epicardium
1. Outside layer = visceral pericardium
2. Connective tissue
ii. Myocardium
1. Middle layer
2. Mostly cardiac muscle
iii. Endocardium
1. Inside layer
2. Endothelium
b. Heart Chambers
i. Right and left side act as separate pumps
ii. Four chambers
1. Two atria
a. Receiving chambers
b. Right and left atrium
2. Two ventricles
a. Pumping chambers
b. Right and left ventricle
c. Heart septa
i. Interventricular
1. Separates the two ventr=icles
ii. Interatrial septum:
1. Separates the two atria
d. Heart valves
i. Purpose—allows blood to flow in only one direction to prevent backflow
ii. Four valves
1. Atrioventricular (AV) valves—between atria and ventricles:
a. Bicuspid (mitral) valve (left side of heart)
b. Tricuspid valve (right side of heart)
2. Semilunar valves—between ventricle and artery:
a. Pulmonary semilunar valve (going to lungs)
b. Aortic semilunar valve
3. AV valve details
a. Anchored in place by Chordae tendineae (“heart strings”)
b. Open during heart relaxation and closed during ventricular contraction
4. Semilunar valve details
a. Open during ventricular contraction and closed during heart relaxation
b. Operate opposite of one another to force a one-way path of blood through the heart
4. Systemic and pulmonary circulations
a. Systemic circulation:
i. Blood flows from the left side of the heart through the body tissues and back to the right side of the heart
b. Pulmonary circulation:
i. Blood flows from the right side of the heart to the lungs and pack to the left side of the heart
5. Great vessels
a. Arteries
i. Aorta
ii. Pulmonary artery
b. Veins
i. Superior/inferior venae cavae
ii. Pulmonary veins
6. Blood flow through the heart
a. From venae cavae
b. From right atrium
c. From right ventricle
d. From pulmonary trunk
e. In the lungs
f. From the lungs
g. From left atrium
h. From left ventricle
7. Coronary circulation
a. Own nourishing system for heart walls
b. Coronary arteries
c. Cardiac veins
d. Coronary sinus
8. Heart conduction system
a. Intrinsic
b. No nerve impulses
c. Sinoatrial (SA) node
d. Atrioventricular (AV) node
e. AV bundle
f. Purkinje fibers
g. Heart contractions
i. Initiation
ii. Autorhythmic cells
iii. Cardiac depolarization
iv. Irregularities
1. Tachycardia
2. Bradycardia
9. Cardiac cycle
a. Sequence
b. Systole
c. Diastole
d. Lubb dupp = heart sounds
i. Lubb
ii. Dupp
Part A: The Heart
1. Where is it?
a. Location—thorax between the lungs in the inferior mediastinum
b. Orientation—pointed apex directed toward left hip
c. Size—about the size of your fist
2. Coverings
a. Pericardium—a double-walled sac:
i. Fibrous pericardium is loose and superficial
ii. Serous pericardium is deep to the fibrous pericardium and composed of two layers:
1. Visceral pericardium (lines organ)
a. Next to heart; also known as the Epicardium
2. Parietal pericardium (surrounds chamber)
a. Outside layer that lines the inner surface of the fibrous pericardium
b. Serous fluid fills the space between the layers of pericardium
3. Heart Structure
a. The heart wall:
i. Epicardium
1. Outside layer = visceral pericardium
2. Connective tissue
ii. Myocardium
1. Middle layer
2. Mostly cardiac muscle
iii. Endocardium
1. Inside layer
2. Endothelium
b. Heart Chambers
i. Right and left side act as separate pumps
ii. Four chambers
1. Two atria
a. Receiving chambers
b. Right and left atrium
2. Two ventricles
a. Pumping chambers
b. Right and left ventricle
c. Heart septa
i. Interventricular
1. Separates the two ventr=icles
ii. Interatrial septum:
1. Separates the two atria
d. Heart valves
i. Purpose—allows blood to flow in only one direction to prevent backflow
ii. Four valves
1. Atrioventricular (AV) valves—between atria and ventricles:
a. Bicuspid (mitral) valve (left side of heart)
b. Tricuspid valve (right side of heart)
2. Semilunar valves—between ventricle and artery:
a. Pulmonary semilunar valve (going to lungs)
b. Aortic semilunar valve
3. AV valve details
a. Anchored in place by Chordae tendineae (“heart strings”)
b. Open during heart relaxation and closed during ventricular contraction
4. Semilunar valve details
a. Open during ventricular contraction and closed during heart relaxation
b. Operate opposite of one another to force a one-way path of blood through the heart
4. Systemic and pulmonary circulations
a. Systemic circulation:
i. Blood flows from the left side of the heart through the body tissues and back to the right side of the heart
b. Pulmonary circulation:
i. Blood flows from the right side of the heart to the lungs and pack to the left side of the heart
5. Great vessels
a. Arteries
i. Aorta
ii. Pulmonary artery
b. Veins
i. Superior/inferior venae cavae
ii. Pulmonary veins
6. Blood flow through the heart
a. From venae cavae
b. From right atrium
c. From right ventricle
d. From pulmonary trunk
e. In the lungs
f. From the lungs
g. From left atrium
h. From left ventricle
7. Coronary circulation
a. Own nourishing system for heart walls
b. Coronary arteries
c. Cardiac veins
d. Coronary sinus
8. Heart conduction system
a. Intrinsic
b. No nerve impulses
c. Sinoatrial (SA) node
d. Atrioventricular (AV) node
e. AV bundle
f. Purkinje fibers
g. Heart contractions
i. Initiation
ii. Autorhythmic cells
iii. Cardiac depolarization
iv. Irregularities
1. Tachycardia
2. Bradycardia
9. Cardiac cycle
a. Sequence
b. Systole
c. Diastole
d. Lubb dupp = heart sounds
i. Lubb
ii. Dupp
Chapter 10, Blood
Chapter 10
Blood
1. Components of cardiovascular system = internal transport = body’s plumbing system
a. Heart: pump of fluids, creates pressure
b. Blood vessels: transports fluid (“pipes”)
c. Blood: fluid: only liquid tissue
i. River of life: liquid
1. Functions
a. Distribution
i. Gases: oxygen and carbon dioxide
ii. Nutrients: digested foods
iii. Wastes: nitrogen (mostly urea)
iv. Hormones: regulate metabolism (endocrine glands)
b. Regulation
i. Body temperature: heat loss at skin surface
ii. pH in body tissues: buffer to resist abrupt changes (bicarbonate ion)
iii. fluid volume: salts and blood proteins keep concentration of body fluids
c. Protection
i. Clotting reaction by platelets and plasma proteins
ii. Antibodies, complement proteins, white blood cells act as body defenses
iii. preventing blood loss
iv. preventing infection
2. Blood tissue
a. Body’s only liquid tissue
b. Classified as a Connective tissue: formed in bone
c. Components
i. Living cells: formed elements
ii. Nonliving matrix
d. Centrifuged blood
i. Red blood cells
1. Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45% of blood, a percentage known as the hematocrit)
ii. White blood cells/platelets
1. Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets (less than 1% of blood)
iii. Plasma
3. Physical characteristics
a. Color
i. Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
ii. Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
b. pH range must remain between 7.35-7.45
c. body temperature is slightly higher than body temperature at 100.4 degrees F
d. blood volume is about 5-6 liters or about 6 quarts, in a healthy man
e. 8% of body weight
4. Blood plasma
a. Composed of approximately 90% Water
b. Includes many Dissolved substances:
i. Nutrients
ii. Salts (electrolytes)
iii. Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2)
iv. Hormones
v. Plasma proteins
vi. Waste products
c. Plasma proteins
i. Most abundant solutes in plasma
ii. Most plasma proteins are made by liver
iii. Various plasma proteins include:
1. Albumins—regulates osmotic pressure
2. Clotting proteins—help stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
3. Antibodies—help protect the body from pathogens
iv. Acidosis:
1. Blood becomes too acidic
v. Alkalosis:
1. Blood becomes too basic
vi. In each scenario, the respiratory system and kidneys help restore Blood pH to normal
5. Formed elements
a. Erythrocytes:
i. Red blood cells (RBCs)
ii. Main function is to carry oxygen
iii. Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes:
1. Shape of biconcave disks
2. Bags of hemoglobin
3. Anucleate (no nucleus)
4. Contain very few organelles
5. 5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood
iv. Hemoglobin
1. Protein that contains iron
2. Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
3. each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites
4. each erythrocyte has 250 ,million hemoglobin molecules
5. normal blood contains 12-18g of hemoglobin per 100 mL blood
v. Hemostatic imbalances
1. General anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood
2. Sickle cell anemia (SCA) results from abnormally shaped hemoglobin
3. Polycythemia is an excessive or abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes
b. Leukocytes:
i. White blood cells (WBCs)
ii. Crucial for the body’s defense against disease
iii. Complete cells: with a nucleus and organelles
iv. Able to move into and out of blood vessels (Diapedesis)
v. Moves by ameboid motion
vi. Responds to chemicals released by damaged tissues
vii. Number: 4,000 to 11,000 WBC per cubic millimeter of blood
viii. Abnormal numbers:
1. Leukocytosis
a. WBC count above 11,000 leukocytes/mm^3
b. Generally indicates an infection
2. Leukpoenia
a. Abnormally low leukocyte level
b. Commonly caused by certain drugs such as corticosteroids and anticancer agents
3. Leukemia
a. Bone marrow becomes cancerous, turns out excess malformed WBC
c. Thrombocytes = platelets, cell fragments
6. Types of leukocytes
a. Granulocytes
i. Granules in their cytoplasm
ii. Lobed Nuclei
iii. Types:
1. Neutrophils
2. Eosinophils
3. basophils
b. Agranulocytes
i. Lack cytoplasmic granules
ii. Nuclei shape: spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
iii. Types:
1. Lymphocytes
2. Monocytes
c. List from most to least abundant:
i. Never—Neutrophils
1. 40-70% of all WBC’s
2. Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection
ii. Let—Lymphocytes
1. 20-40% of all WBC’s
2. Play an important role in the immune response
iii. Monkeys—Monocytes
1. 4-8% of all WBC’s
2. Function as macrophages in chronic infection
iv. Eat—Eosinophils
1. 1-4% of all WBC’s
2. Found in response to allergies and parasitic worms
v. Bananas—Basophils
1. 1% of all WBC’s
2. Initiate inflammation with histamine
d. Platelets:
i. Derived from ruptured megakaryocytes
ii. Needed for the clotting process
iii. Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm^3
e. Hematopoiesis
i. Blood cell formation
ii. Occurs in red bone marrow
iii. All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast)
Blood
1. Components of cardiovascular system = internal transport = body’s plumbing system
a. Heart: pump of fluids, creates pressure
b. Blood vessels: transports fluid (“pipes”)
c. Blood: fluid: only liquid tissue
i. River of life: liquid
1. Functions
a. Distribution
i. Gases: oxygen and carbon dioxide
ii. Nutrients: digested foods
iii. Wastes: nitrogen (mostly urea)
iv. Hormones: regulate metabolism (endocrine glands)
b. Regulation
i. Body temperature: heat loss at skin surface
ii. pH in body tissues: buffer to resist abrupt changes (bicarbonate ion)
iii. fluid volume: salts and blood proteins keep concentration of body fluids
c. Protection
i. Clotting reaction by platelets and plasma proteins
ii. Antibodies, complement proteins, white blood cells act as body defenses
iii. preventing blood loss
iv. preventing infection
2. Blood tissue
a. Body’s only liquid tissue
b. Classified as a Connective tissue: formed in bone
c. Components
i. Living cells: formed elements
ii. Nonliving matrix
d. Centrifuged blood
i. Red blood cells
1. Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45% of blood, a percentage known as the hematocrit)
ii. White blood cells/platelets
1. Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets (less than 1% of blood)
iii. Plasma
3. Physical characteristics
a. Color
i. Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
ii. Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
b. pH range must remain between 7.35-7.45
c. body temperature is slightly higher than body temperature at 100.4 degrees F
d. blood volume is about 5-6 liters or about 6 quarts, in a healthy man
e. 8% of body weight
4. Blood plasma
a. Composed of approximately 90% Water
b. Includes many Dissolved substances:
i. Nutrients
ii. Salts (electrolytes)
iii. Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2)
iv. Hormones
v. Plasma proteins
vi. Waste products
c. Plasma proteins
i. Most abundant solutes in plasma
ii. Most plasma proteins are made by liver
iii. Various plasma proteins include:
1. Albumins—regulates osmotic pressure
2. Clotting proteins—help stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
3. Antibodies—help protect the body from pathogens
iv. Acidosis:
1. Blood becomes too acidic
v. Alkalosis:
1. Blood becomes too basic
vi. In each scenario, the respiratory system and kidneys help restore Blood pH to normal
5. Formed elements
a. Erythrocytes:
i. Red blood cells (RBCs)
ii. Main function is to carry oxygen
iii. Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes:
1. Shape of biconcave disks
2. Bags of hemoglobin
3. Anucleate (no nucleus)
4. Contain very few organelles
5. 5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood
iv. Hemoglobin
1. Protein that contains iron
2. Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
3. each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites
4. each erythrocyte has 250 ,million hemoglobin molecules
5. normal blood contains 12-18g of hemoglobin per 100 mL blood
v. Hemostatic imbalances
1. General anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood
2. Sickle cell anemia (SCA) results from abnormally shaped hemoglobin
3. Polycythemia is an excessive or abnormal increase in the number of erythrocytes
b. Leukocytes:
i. White blood cells (WBCs)
ii. Crucial for the body’s defense against disease
iii. Complete cells: with a nucleus and organelles
iv. Able to move into and out of blood vessels (Diapedesis)
v. Moves by ameboid motion
vi. Responds to chemicals released by damaged tissues
vii. Number: 4,000 to 11,000 WBC per cubic millimeter of blood
viii. Abnormal numbers:
1. Leukocytosis
a. WBC count above 11,000 leukocytes/mm^3
b. Generally indicates an infection
2. Leukpoenia
a. Abnormally low leukocyte level
b. Commonly caused by certain drugs such as corticosteroids and anticancer agents
3. Leukemia
a. Bone marrow becomes cancerous, turns out excess malformed WBC
c. Thrombocytes = platelets, cell fragments
6. Types of leukocytes
a. Granulocytes
i. Granules in their cytoplasm
ii. Lobed Nuclei
iii. Types:
1. Neutrophils
2. Eosinophils
3. basophils
b. Agranulocytes
i. Lack cytoplasmic granules
ii. Nuclei shape: spherical, oval, or kidney-shaped
iii. Types:
1. Lymphocytes
2. Monocytes
c. List from most to least abundant:
i. Never—Neutrophils
1. 40-70% of all WBC’s
2. Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection
ii. Let—Lymphocytes
1. 20-40% of all WBC’s
2. Play an important role in the immune response
iii. Monkeys—Monocytes
1. 4-8% of all WBC’s
2. Function as macrophages in chronic infection
iv. Eat—Eosinophils
1. 1-4% of all WBC’s
2. Found in response to allergies and parasitic worms
v. Bananas—Basophils
1. 1% of all WBC’s
2. Initiate inflammation with histamine
d. Platelets:
i. Derived from ruptured megakaryocytes
ii. Needed for the clotting process
iii. Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm^3
e. Hematopoiesis
i. Blood cell formation
ii. Occurs in red bone marrow
iii. All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast)
Chapter 9, The Endocrine System, Part B
Anatomy & Physiology – Chapter 9 Part B
Endocrine System
1. Thyroid gland
a. Found at the base of the throat
b. Consists of two lobes and a connecting tissue
c. Produces two hormones
i. Thyroid hormone (TH)
1. Major metabolic hormone (rate at which glucose is burned in the cells)
ii. Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones:
1. Thyroxine (T4 )—secreted by thyroid follicles
2. Triiodothyronine(T3)
iii. Thyroid hormone disorders:
1. Goiters:
a. Thyroid gland enlarges due to lack of iodine
b. Salt is iodized to prevent goiters
c. Most common in poor, third world countries
2. Cretinism:
a. Caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine
3. Myxedemi:
a. Caused by hypothyroidism in adults
b. Results in physical and mental slugishness
4. Graves’ disease:
a. Caused by hyperthyroidism
iv. Calcitonin
1. Decreases blood calcium levels by causing its deposition on bone
2. Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
2. Parathyroid gland
a. What and where: tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
b. Secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) which:
i. Stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
ii. Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb more calcium
iii. Raises calcium levels in the blood
iv. See Figure 9.10
3. Adrenal glands
a. Location: sits on top of the kidneys
b. Each has two anatomical & physiological regions:
i. Adrenal cortex: outer glandular region has three layers:
1. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) secreting area
a. Produced in the outer adrenal cortex
b. Regulate mineral content in blood
c. Regulate water and electrolyte balance
d. Target organ is the kidney
e. Stimulated by rennin and aldosterone
f. Inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
2. Glucocorticoids secreting area (including cortisone and cortisol)
a. Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal cortex
b. Promote normal cell metabolism
c. Help resist long-term stressors
d. Released in the response to increase blod levels of ACTH
3. Sex hormones secreting area
a. Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
b. Small amounts are made throughout life
c. Mostly androgens (male sex hormones) are made but some estrogens (female sex hormones) are also formed
4. Disorders
a. Addison’s disease
i. Results from hyposecretion of all adrenal cortex hormones
ii. Bronze skin tone, muscles are weak, burnout, susceptibility to infection
b. Hyperaldosteronism
i. May result from an ACTH-releasing tumor
ii. Excess water and sodium are retained leading to high blood pressure and edema
c. Cushing’s syndrome
i. Results from a tumor in the middle cortical area of the adrenal cortex
ii. “Moon face,” “buffalo hump” on the upper back, high blood pressure hyperglycemia, weakening of bones, depression
d. Masculinization
i. Results from hypersecretion of sex hormones
ii. Beard and male distribution of hair growth
ii. Adrenal medulla
1. Produce two similar hormones (catecholamines)
a. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
b. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
c. Fight or flight
d. These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-term stress (“fight or flight”) by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels
e. Dilating small passageways of lungs
4. Pancreatic islets
a. The pancreas is a mixed gland and has both endocrine and exocrine functions
b. The pancreatic islets produce hormones:
i. Insulin—allows glucose to cross plasma membranes into cells form beta cells
1. Lowers blood sugar
ii. Glucagon—allows glucose to enter the blood from alpha cells
1. Raises blood sugar
iii. These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar homeostasis
c. Disorders: diabetes
i. Type 1 – juvenile diabetes (diagnosed at a very young age), usually born with it. Pancreas cannot and will not ever produce insulin.
ii. Type 2 – pancreas has been put in “over drive”, pancreas just cannot produce enough insulin. Can be monitored and possibly rid of by watching your weight and what you eat.
5. Pineal gland
a. Location
i. Found on the third ventricle of the brain
b. Secretes melatonin:
i. Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep cycles
ii. Believed to coordinate the hormones of sexual maturation and fertility in humans
6. Thymus gland
a. Located posterior to the sternum
b. Largest in infants and children
c. Produces thymosin:
i. Matures some types of white blood cells
ii. Important in developing the immune system
7. Gonads
a. Ovaries
i. Produce eggs
ii. Produce two groups of steroid hormones:
1. Estrogens
a. Stimulate the development of secondary female characteristics
b. Mature female reproductive organs
c. Along with progesterone, estrogens also:
i. Promote breast development
ii. Regulate menstrual cycle
2. Progesterone:
a. Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
b. Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
c. Helps prepare breasts for lactation
b. Testes
i. Produce sperm
ii. Produce androgens, such as testosterone (most important androgen)
1. Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
2. Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
3. Required for sperm cell production
8. Other hormone-producing organs/tissues
9. Placenta – nurturing structure for developing fetus; attached to umbilical cord
a. Produces
b. Some hormones
c. Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
10. Developmental aspects of the endocrine system
a. Most organs
b. Menopause
c. Problems
d. Growth hormone
e. Endocrine glands
Endocrine System
1. Thyroid gland
a. Found at the base of the throat
b. Consists of two lobes and a connecting tissue
c. Produces two hormones
i. Thyroid hormone (TH)
1. Major metabolic hormone (rate at which glucose is burned in the cells)
ii. Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones:
1. Thyroxine (T4 )—secreted by thyroid follicles
2. Triiodothyronine(T3)
iii. Thyroid hormone disorders:
1. Goiters:
a. Thyroid gland enlarges due to lack of iodine
b. Salt is iodized to prevent goiters
c. Most common in poor, third world countries
2. Cretinism:
a. Caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine
3. Myxedemi:
a. Caused by hypothyroidism in adults
b. Results in physical and mental slugishness
4. Graves’ disease:
a. Caused by hyperthyroidism
iv. Calcitonin
1. Decreases blood calcium levels by causing its deposition on bone
2. Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
2. Parathyroid gland
a. What and where: tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
b. Secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) which:
i. Stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
ii. Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb more calcium
iii. Raises calcium levels in the blood
iv. See Figure 9.10
3. Adrenal glands
a. Location: sits on top of the kidneys
b. Each has two anatomical & physiological regions:
i. Adrenal cortex: outer glandular region has three layers:
1. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) secreting area
a. Produced in the outer adrenal cortex
b. Regulate mineral content in blood
c. Regulate water and electrolyte balance
d. Target organ is the kidney
e. Stimulated by rennin and aldosterone
f. Inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
2. Glucocorticoids secreting area (including cortisone and cortisol)
a. Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal cortex
b. Promote normal cell metabolism
c. Help resist long-term stressors
d. Released in the response to increase blod levels of ACTH
3. Sex hormones secreting area
a. Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
b. Small amounts are made throughout life
c. Mostly androgens (male sex hormones) are made but some estrogens (female sex hormones) are also formed
4. Disorders
a. Addison’s disease
i. Results from hyposecretion of all adrenal cortex hormones
ii. Bronze skin tone, muscles are weak, burnout, susceptibility to infection
b. Hyperaldosteronism
i. May result from an ACTH-releasing tumor
ii. Excess water and sodium are retained leading to high blood pressure and edema
c. Cushing’s syndrome
i. Results from a tumor in the middle cortical area of the adrenal cortex
ii. “Moon face,” “buffalo hump” on the upper back, high blood pressure hyperglycemia, weakening of bones, depression
d. Masculinization
i. Results from hypersecretion of sex hormones
ii. Beard and male distribution of hair growth
ii. Adrenal medulla
1. Produce two similar hormones (catecholamines)
a. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
b. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
c. Fight or flight
d. These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-term stress (“fight or flight”) by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels
e. Dilating small passageways of lungs
4. Pancreatic islets
a. The pancreas is a mixed gland and has both endocrine and exocrine functions
b. The pancreatic islets produce hormones:
i. Insulin—allows glucose to cross plasma membranes into cells form beta cells
1. Lowers blood sugar
ii. Glucagon—allows glucose to enter the blood from alpha cells
1. Raises blood sugar
iii. These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar homeostasis
c. Disorders: diabetes
i. Type 1 – juvenile diabetes (diagnosed at a very young age), usually born with it. Pancreas cannot and will not ever produce insulin.
ii. Type 2 – pancreas has been put in “over drive”, pancreas just cannot produce enough insulin. Can be monitored and possibly rid of by watching your weight and what you eat.
5. Pineal gland
a. Location
i. Found on the third ventricle of the brain
b. Secretes melatonin:
i. Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep cycles
ii. Believed to coordinate the hormones of sexual maturation and fertility in humans
6. Thymus gland
a. Located posterior to the sternum
b. Largest in infants and children
c. Produces thymosin:
i. Matures some types of white blood cells
ii. Important in developing the immune system
7. Gonads
a. Ovaries
i. Produce eggs
ii. Produce two groups of steroid hormones:
1. Estrogens
a. Stimulate the development of secondary female characteristics
b. Mature female reproductive organs
c. Along with progesterone, estrogens also:
i. Promote breast development
ii. Regulate menstrual cycle
2. Progesterone:
a. Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
b. Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
c. Helps prepare breasts for lactation
b. Testes
i. Produce sperm
ii. Produce androgens, such as testosterone (most important androgen)
1. Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics
2. Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
3. Required for sperm cell production
8. Other hormone-producing organs/tissues
9. Placenta – nurturing structure for developing fetus; attached to umbilical cord
a. Produces
b. Some hormones
c. Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
10. Developmental aspects of the endocrine system
a. Most organs
b. Menopause
c. Problems
d. Growth hormone
e. Endocrine glands
Chapter 9, The Endocrine System, Part A
The Endocrine System
Chapter 9
1. Overview
a. Second control system
b. Uses chemical messengers (hormones); released into the blood; usually long term control
c. Hormones control several major processes
i. Reproduction
ii. Growth and development
iii. Mobilization of body defenses
iv. Maintenance of much of homeostasis
v. Regulation of metabolism
2. Hormones
a. Overview
i. Hormones produced by specialized cells
ii. Cells secrete secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
iii. Blood transfers hormones to target sites
iv. These hormones have specific effects on these cells
b. Chemistry – hormones classified as:
i. Amino acid/protein based
ii. Steroids—made from cholesterol
iii. Prostaglandins—made from highly active lipids
c. Mechanism of hormone action
i. Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target cells, tissues, or organs)
1. Target cells must have specific protein receptors
ii. Hormone binding alters cellular activity:
1. Direct gene activity
2. Indirectly by a second messenger system
iii. Direct gene action (steroid hormone action)
1. Diffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells
2. Enter the nucleus
3. Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus and to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
4. Activate genes that result in synthesis of new proteins
iv. Indirect: Second messenger system; the hormone:
1. Binds to a membrane receptor
2. Does not enter the cell
3. Sets off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme
4. Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second-messenger molecule
5. Oversees additional intracellular changes to promote a specific response
v. How hormone release is controlled
1. Levels in the blood
2. Stops when
3. Release triggered by
a. Levels of
b. Levels of
c. Nerve impulses
3. Overview of the system
a. Spread throughout the body
b. Sometimes part of other systems
c. List of major organs
i. Pituitary gland
ii. Thyroid gland
iii. Parathyroid glands
iv. Adrenal glands
v. Pineal gland
vi. Thymus gland
vii. Pancreas
viii. Gonads (ovaries and testes)
4. Pituitary gland
a. Size of a pea
b. Hangs from a stalk from the hypothalamus in the brain
c. Protected by the sphenoid bone
d. Two functional lobes
i. Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue
ii. Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue
e. Referred to as “master endocrine gland”
f. Anterior pituitary hormones (6)
i. Targets are non-endocrine (two affect non-endocrine targets)
1. GH = Growth Hormone
2. PRL = Prolactin
ii. Tropic hormones: affect other endocrine glands (four stimulate other endocrine glands)
1. TSH = Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropic hormone)
2. ACTH = Adrenocorticotropic hormones
3. Gonadotropins
a. FSH =
b. LH =
5. Hormones of the anterior pituitary
a. Growth hormone
i. General metabolic hormone
ii. Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal muscles and long bones
iii. Plays a role in determining final body size
iv. Causes amino acids to be built into proteins; fats to be broken down for a source of energy
v. Disorders
1. Pituitary dwarfism
a. Results from hyposecretion of growth hormone during childhood
2. Gigantism
a. Results from hypersecretion of growth hormone during childhood
3. Acromegaly
a. Results from hypersecretion of growth hormone during adulthood
b. Prolactin
i. In women stimulates and maintains milk production following childbirth
ii. In men function in males is unknown
c. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
i. Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal cortex
d. Thyroid-stimulating hormone
i. Influences growth and activity of the thyroid gland
e. Gonadotropins: regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
i. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
1. In ovaries stimulates follicle development
2. In testes stimulates sperm development
ii. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
1. In females triggers ovulation of an egg
2. In males stimulates testosterone production
6. Pituitary/hypothalamus relationship
a. Regulated by releasing and inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus
b. Hypothalamus produces two hormones transported to the posterior pituitary:
i. Oxytosin
1. Stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor, sexual relations, and breastfeeding
2. Causes milk ejection in a nursing woman
ii. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
1. Inhibits urine production by promoting water reabsorbtion by the kidneys
2. In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction leading to increased blood pressure
3. AKA vasopressin
iii. Transported to posterior pituitary via
Chapter 9
1. Overview
a. Second control system
b. Uses chemical messengers (hormones); released into the blood; usually long term control
c. Hormones control several major processes
i. Reproduction
ii. Growth and development
iii. Mobilization of body defenses
iv. Maintenance of much of homeostasis
v. Regulation of metabolism
2. Hormones
a. Overview
i. Hormones produced by specialized cells
ii. Cells secrete secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
iii. Blood transfers hormones to target sites
iv. These hormones have specific effects on these cells
b. Chemistry – hormones classified as:
i. Amino acid/protein based
ii. Steroids—made from cholesterol
iii. Prostaglandins—made from highly active lipids
c. Mechanism of hormone action
i. Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target cells, tissues, or organs)
1. Target cells must have specific protein receptors
ii. Hormone binding alters cellular activity:
1. Direct gene activity
2. Indirectly by a second messenger system
iii. Direct gene action (steroid hormone action)
1. Diffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells
2. Enter the nucleus
3. Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus and to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
4. Activate genes that result in synthesis of new proteins
iv. Indirect: Second messenger system; the hormone:
1. Binds to a membrane receptor
2. Does not enter the cell
3. Sets off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme
4. Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second-messenger molecule
5. Oversees additional intracellular changes to promote a specific response
v. How hormone release is controlled
1. Levels in the blood
2. Stops when
3. Release triggered by
a. Levels of
b. Levels of
c. Nerve impulses
3. Overview of the system
a. Spread throughout the body
b. Sometimes part of other systems
c. List of major organs
i. Pituitary gland
ii. Thyroid gland
iii. Parathyroid glands
iv. Adrenal glands
v. Pineal gland
vi. Thymus gland
vii. Pancreas
viii. Gonads (ovaries and testes)
4. Pituitary gland
a. Size of a pea
b. Hangs from a stalk from the hypothalamus in the brain
c. Protected by the sphenoid bone
d. Two functional lobes
i. Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue
ii. Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue
e. Referred to as “master endocrine gland”
f. Anterior pituitary hormones (6)
i. Targets are non-endocrine (two affect non-endocrine targets)
1. GH = Growth Hormone
2. PRL = Prolactin
ii. Tropic hormones: affect other endocrine glands (four stimulate other endocrine glands)
1. TSH = Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropic hormone)
2. ACTH = Adrenocorticotropic hormones
3. Gonadotropins
a. FSH =
b. LH =
5. Hormones of the anterior pituitary
a. Growth hormone
i. General metabolic hormone
ii. Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal muscles and long bones
iii. Plays a role in determining final body size
iv. Causes amino acids to be built into proteins; fats to be broken down for a source of energy
v. Disorders
1. Pituitary dwarfism
a. Results from hyposecretion of growth hormone during childhood
2. Gigantism
a. Results from hypersecretion of growth hormone during childhood
3. Acromegaly
a. Results from hypersecretion of growth hormone during adulthood
b. Prolactin
i. In women stimulates and maintains milk production following childbirth
ii. In men function in males is unknown
c. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
i. Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal cortex
d. Thyroid-stimulating hormone
i. Influences growth and activity of the thyroid gland
e. Gonadotropins: regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
i. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
1. In ovaries stimulates follicle development
2. In testes stimulates sperm development
ii. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
1. In females triggers ovulation of an egg
2. In males stimulates testosterone production
6. Pituitary/hypothalamus relationship
a. Regulated by releasing and inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus
b. Hypothalamus produces two hormones transported to the posterior pituitary:
i. Oxytosin
1. Stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor, sexual relations, and breastfeeding
2. Causes milk ejection in a nursing woman
ii. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
1. Inhibits urine production by promoting water reabsorbtion by the kidneys
2. In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction leading to increased blood pressure
3. AKA vasopressin
iii. Transported to posterior pituitary via
Thursday, April 28, 2011
Geno's
This sign posted at Geno’s, a world famous cheese steak joint located in Philadelphia, reads “This is America. When ordering please speak English”. This sign has sparked up much debate as to whether or not the sign implies discrimination against immigrants and non-English speaking citizens. I disagree, this sign is not what-so-ever an act of discrimination. Whether a non-English speaking person had just moved to the United States or came on a vacation/trip, they should learn to assimilate to a certain degree in order to freely explore the country. If coming to America you should have a pretty good background on the language and such. Coming to this country not knowing anything or not being able to speak the slightest bit of English is a problem. I agree, we are in America therefor you should be speaking English.
Thursday, March 10, 2011
Values of Motherhood
In order to make a decision, if I had Cancer, as to maintaining the pregnancy or opting for an abortion, I would consider all of the possiblities. Will I be hurting my child if I continue? Will I put both myself and my child at risk? Do the pros weigh out the cons? Before making my decision, I would consider all of these factors. My family as well as my doctor would have an influence on my decision. I would say that my husband would have the most influence on my decision, especially since the child is half of his. As long as I am confident that I am making the better decision for both my child and I would ignore the critics of my decision. Ofcourse I would be upset if they were mean but I would not let it get the best of me. As a healthcare professional, I would not think working with someone who chose the opposite of how I felt would be difficult. As a professional I would simply keep my opinion to myself and continue to support my patient. My job is to help, not hurt them or tell them they are making a terrible decision.
Monday, February 7, 2011
Chapter 8
Chapter 8 Special Senses
Part A: Vision
1. The eye and vision
a. 70% of all sensory receptors are in the eye
b. Each eye – over a million nerve fibers
2. Protection for the eye
a. A bony orbit
b. A surrounding cushion of fat
c. Accessory structures – not directly involved with actual vision
d. Eyelids and eyelashes: prevent some particles from getting into the eye
i. Tarsal (oil) glands: lubricate the eye
ii. Ciliary (sweat) glands: located between the eyelashes
e. Conjunctiva: membrane lines the eyelids
i. Connects to the surface of the eye
ii. Secretes mucus, lubricates eye
f. Lacrimal = tear apparatus
i. Gland: produces fluid
ii. Canals: drain fluid from the eye
iii. Sac: passage of fluid towards nasal cavity
iv. Nasolacrimal duct: empties fluid into nasal cavity
3. Functions
a. Protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye
b. Empties into the nasal cavity
4. Properties
a. Dilute salt solution (tears)
b. Contains antibodies and lysozyme (antibacterial)
c. Possibly contain hormones (anti-aggressive)
d. Extrinsic eye muscles: 6 muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye\
i. Produces eye movement
5. Layers forming wall of eyeball:
a. Fibrous outside layer
i. Sclera: “white of the eye” connective tissue
ii. Cornea: Transparent, central anterior portion
iii. Allows light to pass through
iv. Repairs itself easily
v. The only human tissue that can be transplanted without fear of rejection
b. Vascular middle layer
i. Choroid: blood-rich nutritive layer in the posterior of the eye
- Modified anteriorly into two structures
1. Ciliary: smooth muscle attached to lens
2. Irsi: regulates amount of light entering the eye
• Pigmented layer that gives eye color
• Pupil: rounded opening in the iris
c. Sensory inner layer
i. Retina: contains two layers:
1. Outer pigmented layer
2. Inner neural layer with photoreceptor rods and cones
3. Optic nerve: signal leave the retina toward the brain through the optic nerve
4. Optic disc: (blind spot) is where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball
- Cannot see images focused on the optic disc
ii. Rods = black and white vision
iii. Cones = color vision
1. Fovea centralis
2. Cone sensitivity
d. Lens
i. Normal function
ii. Cataracts
e. Chambers of the eye
i. Aqueous
ii. Vitreous
4. Ophthalmoscope
Part A: Vision
1. The eye and vision
a. 70% of all sensory receptors are in the eye
b. Each eye – over a million nerve fibers
2. Protection for the eye
a. A bony orbit
b. A surrounding cushion of fat
c. Accessory structures – not directly involved with actual vision
d. Eyelids and eyelashes: prevent some particles from getting into the eye
i. Tarsal (oil) glands: lubricate the eye
ii. Ciliary (sweat) glands: located between the eyelashes
e. Conjunctiva: membrane lines the eyelids
i. Connects to the surface of the eye
ii. Secretes mucus, lubricates eye
f. Lacrimal = tear apparatus
i. Gland: produces fluid
ii. Canals: drain fluid from the eye
iii. Sac: passage of fluid towards nasal cavity
iv. Nasolacrimal duct: empties fluid into nasal cavity
3. Functions
a. Protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye
b. Empties into the nasal cavity
4. Properties
a. Dilute salt solution (tears)
b. Contains antibodies and lysozyme (antibacterial)
c. Possibly contain hormones (anti-aggressive)
d. Extrinsic eye muscles: 6 muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye\
i. Produces eye movement
5. Layers forming wall of eyeball:
a. Fibrous outside layer
i. Sclera: “white of the eye” connective tissue
ii. Cornea: Transparent, central anterior portion
iii. Allows light to pass through
iv. Repairs itself easily
v. The only human tissue that can be transplanted without fear of rejection
b. Vascular middle layer
i. Choroid: blood-rich nutritive layer in the posterior of the eye
- Modified anteriorly into two structures
1. Ciliary: smooth muscle attached to lens
2. Irsi: regulates amount of light entering the eye
• Pigmented layer that gives eye color
• Pupil: rounded opening in the iris
c. Sensory inner layer
i. Retina: contains two layers:
1. Outer pigmented layer
2. Inner neural layer with photoreceptor rods and cones
3. Optic nerve: signal leave the retina toward the brain through the optic nerve
4. Optic disc: (blind spot) is where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball
- Cannot see images focused on the optic disc
ii. Rods = black and white vision
iii. Cones = color vision
1. Fovea centralis
2. Cone sensitivity
d. Lens
i. Normal function
ii. Cataracts
e. Chambers of the eye
i. Aqueous
ii. Vitreous
4. Ophthalmoscope
Friday, January 28, 2011
Chapter 7 Outline
natomy & Physiology
Chapter 7: Nervous System
Nervous System
/ \
CNS PNS
(brain + spinal cord) (peripheral nerves)
/ \
Autonomic Somatic
(involuntary) (voluntary)
/ \
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
(fight or flight) (normal)
Increase heart rate, decrease digestion everyday functions
A. Functions
a. Sensory imput—gathering information:
i. To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body
ii. Changes = stimuli
b. Integration
i. To process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed
c. Motor output
i. A response to integrated stimuli
ii. The response activateds muscles or glands
B. Structural classification
a. Central nervous system (CNS)
i. Brain
ii. Spinal Cord
b. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
i. Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord;
ii. Spinal nerves
iii. Cranial nerves
c. Sensory (afferent)
i. Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system from our five senses
d. Motor (efferent)
i. Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system (to muscles or glands)
ii. Two subdivisions:
1. Somatic nervous system = voluntary
2. Autonomimc nervous system = involuntary
C. Nervous tissue
a. Neuroglia
i. Astrocytes
ii. Microglia
iii. Ependymal cells
iv. Oligodendrocytes
v. Satellite cells
vi. Schwann cells
b. Neurons
i. Major regions
1. cell body
2. outside body
a. dendrites
b. axons
i. terminals
ii. synaptic cleft
iii. synapse
iv. myelin sheath
1. Schwann cells
2. Nodes of Ranvier
ii. Locations
1. Gray matter
2. Nuclei
3. Ganglia
Chapter 7: Nervous System
Part 2: Central Nervous System
A. Development
a. CNS develops from the Embryonic neural tube
i. The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord
b. The opening of the hollow neural tube becomes the ventricles:
i. Four chambers within the brain
ii. Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
B. Regions of the brain
a. Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum)
i. Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
ii. Mass: includes more than half of the brain mass
iii. Surface, made of gyri and sulci
1. Gyri
a. AKA Ridges
2. Sulci
a. AKA grooves
iv. Lobes
1. Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes
2. Surface lobes of the cerebrum (named for adjacent bones):
a. Frontal
b. Parietal
c. Occipital
d. Temporal
v. Specialized areas of the cerebrum:
1. Primary somatic sensory:
a. Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
b. Located in parietal lobe
2. Primary motor
a. Sends impulses to skeletal muscles
b. Located in frontal lobe
3. Broca’s Lobe:
a. Involved in our ability to speak
4. Special senses involved in the cerebral areas
a. Gustatory (taste)
b. Visual
c. Auditory (hearing)
d. Olfactory (smell)
5. Interpretation areas
vi. Layers of the cerebrum:
1. Gray matter
a. Outer layer in the cerebral cotex composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
2. White matter
a. Fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
b. Corpus callosum connects hemispheres
3. Basal nuclei
a. Islands of gray matter buried within the white matter
b. Diencephalon
i. Location
1. Sits on top of the brain stem
2. Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
ii. Made of three parts
1. Thalamus
a. Location
i. Surrounds the third ventricle
b. Functions
i. The relay station for sensory impulses
ii. Transfers impulses to the cortex
2. Hypothalamus
a. Location
i. Under the thalamus
b. Functions: autonomic nervous system center
i. Helps regulate body temperature
ii. Controls water balance
iii. Regulates metabolism
iv. An important part of the limbic system (emotions)
c. Pituitary gland: master gland of endocrine system
3. Epithalamus
a. Location
i. Forms the roof of the third ventricle
ii. Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
b. Functions
c. Brain stem
i. Location
1. Attaches to the spinal cord
ii. Parts
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla oblongata
a. Controls
i. Heart rate
ii. Blood pressure
iii. Breathing
b. Control centers
4. Reticular formation
a. Reticular activating system (RAS)
d. Cerebellum
i. Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
ii. Provides involuntary coordination of body movements
Chapter 7: Nervous System
Nervous System
/ \
CNS PNS
(brain + spinal cord) (peripheral nerves)
/ \
Autonomic Somatic
(involuntary) (voluntary)
/ \
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
(fight or flight) (normal)
Increase heart rate, decrease digestion everyday functions
A. Functions
a. Sensory imput—gathering information:
i. To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body
ii. Changes = stimuli
b. Integration
i. To process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed
c. Motor output
i. A response to integrated stimuli
ii. The response activateds muscles or glands
B. Structural classification
a. Central nervous system (CNS)
i. Brain
ii. Spinal Cord
b. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
i. Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord;
ii. Spinal nerves
iii. Cranial nerves
c. Sensory (afferent)
i. Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system from our five senses
d. Motor (efferent)
i. Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system (to muscles or glands)
ii. Two subdivisions:
1. Somatic nervous system = voluntary
2. Autonomimc nervous system = involuntary
C. Nervous tissue
a. Neuroglia
i. Astrocytes
ii. Microglia
iii. Ependymal cells
iv. Oligodendrocytes
v. Satellite cells
vi. Schwann cells
b. Neurons
i. Major regions
1. cell body
2. outside body
a. dendrites
b. axons
i. terminals
ii. synaptic cleft
iii. synapse
iv. myelin sheath
1. Schwann cells
2. Nodes of Ranvier
ii. Locations
1. Gray matter
2. Nuclei
3. Ganglia
Chapter 7: Nervous System
Part 2: Central Nervous System
A. Development
a. CNS develops from the Embryonic neural tube
i. The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord
b. The opening of the hollow neural tube becomes the ventricles:
i. Four chambers within the brain
ii. Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
B. Regions of the brain
a. Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum)
i. Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
ii. Mass: includes more than half of the brain mass
iii. Surface, made of gyri and sulci
1. Gyri
a. AKA Ridges
2. Sulci
a. AKA grooves
iv. Lobes
1. Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes
2. Surface lobes of the cerebrum (named for adjacent bones):
a. Frontal
b. Parietal
c. Occipital
d. Temporal
v. Specialized areas of the cerebrum:
1. Primary somatic sensory:
a. Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
b. Located in parietal lobe
2. Primary motor
a. Sends impulses to skeletal muscles
b. Located in frontal lobe
3. Broca’s Lobe:
a. Involved in our ability to speak
4. Special senses involved in the cerebral areas
a. Gustatory (taste)
b. Visual
c. Auditory (hearing)
d. Olfactory (smell)
5. Interpretation areas
vi. Layers of the cerebrum:
1. Gray matter
a. Outer layer in the cerebral cotex composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
2. White matter
a. Fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
b. Corpus callosum connects hemispheres
3. Basal nuclei
a. Islands of gray matter buried within the white matter
b. Diencephalon
i. Location
1. Sits on top of the brain stem
2. Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
ii. Made of three parts
1. Thalamus
a. Location
i. Surrounds the third ventricle
b. Functions
i. The relay station for sensory impulses
ii. Transfers impulses to the cortex
2. Hypothalamus
a. Location
i. Under the thalamus
b. Functions: autonomic nervous system center
i. Helps regulate body temperature
ii. Controls water balance
iii. Regulates metabolism
iv. An important part of the limbic system (emotions)
c. Pituitary gland: master gland of endocrine system
3. Epithalamus
a. Location
i. Forms the roof of the third ventricle
ii. Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
b. Functions
c. Brain stem
i. Location
1. Attaches to the spinal cord
ii. Parts
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla oblongata
a. Controls
i. Heart rate
ii. Blood pressure
iii. Breathing
b. Control centers
4. Reticular formation
a. Reticular activating system (RAS)
d. Cerebellum
i. Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
ii. Provides involuntary coordination of body movements
Chapter 6 Outline
Chapter 6: The Muscular System
1. Overview/similarities of muscle tissue
a. Muscles: responsible for all types of body movement
b. Muscle types (Table 6.1)
i. Skeletal
ii. Cardiac – found only in heart
iii. Smooth – internal systems like tube shaped organs, also hairs
c. Characteristics
i. Muscle cells are elongated (Muscle fiber = muscle cell)
ii. Contraction of muscles is due to the movement of microfilaments
iii. Prefixes
1. Sarcolemma
2. Sarcoplasm
3. Prefixes:
a. Myo and Mys = muscle
b. Sarco = flesh
d. Functional characteristics of muscle tissue
i. Excitability (also called responsiveness or irritability)—ability to receive and respond to a stimulus
ii. Contractility—ability to shorten when an adequate stimulus is recieved
iii. Extensibility—ability of muscle cells to be stretched
iv. Elasticity—ability to recoil and resume resting length after stretching
2. Skeletal muscle
a. Characteristics
i. Most are attached by tendons to bones
ii. Cells are multinucleate
iii. Striations—have visible banding (straight lines)
iv. Control—voluntary (subject to conscious control
b. Connective tissue wrappings:
i. Endomysium –encloses a single muscle fiber
ii. Epimysium—covers the entire skeletal muscle
iii. Perimysium—wraps around a fascicle (bundle) of muscle fibers
iv. Fascia—on the outside of the epimysium
v. Tendon—cord-like structures
1. When epimysium blends into a connective tissue attachment.
2. Epimysium is a wrapping that extends into a tendon
3. Mostly collagen fibers
4. Often cross a joint due to toughness and small size
vi. Aponeurosis—sheet-like structures
1. Attach muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages, or connective tissue coverings
c. Where skeletal muscles attach:
i. Bones
ii. Cartilages
iii. Connective Tissue coverings
3. Smooth muscles
a. Characteristics
i. Lacks striations
ii. Spindle-shaped cells
iii. Single Nucleus
iv. Control: involuntary—no conscious control
v. Where: found mainly in the walls of hollow organs
4. Cardiac muscles
a. Characteristics
i. Striations
ii. Usually single Nucleus
iii. Branching Cells
iv. Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc
v. Control: involuntary
vi. Where: only in the heart
5. Physiology of skeletal muscle
a. Muscle functions
i. Produce movement
ii. Maintain posture
iii. Stabilize joints
iv. Generate heat (movement)
b. Microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle
i. Sarcolemma—specialized plasma membrane
ii. Myofibrils—long organelles inside muscle cell
iii. Sarcoplasmic reticulum—specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
c. Myofibrils are aligned to give distinct bands
i. Sarcomere – functional unit of classification
1. Myofilaments
a. Myosin = thick filaments
b. Actin = thin filaments
2. Striations = patterns of cross stripes (Fig 6.3)
a. A band = dark band
i. Contains the entire length of the thick filaments
b. I band = light band
i. Contains only thin filaments
c. Z line
d. H zone
e. M line
ii. Ultrastructure and chemical composition of myofilaments (Fig. 6.7)
1. Myosin
a. Two heads
i. Actin binding site
ii. ATP binding site and ATPase
b. One tail
2. Thin filaments = actin + tropomyosin + troponin
a. Two strands of G-actin twisted
b. Two strands of tropomyosin
c. Troponin covers binding sites
iii. Sarcoplasmic reticulum – transmits calcium to myoplasm when stimulated
d. Generation of action potential across sarcolemma
i. Action potential defined -
ii. Resting potential
iii. Depolarization
iv. Repolarization
6. Contraction of skeletal muscle fiber
a. Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
b. Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be stimulated during the same interval
c. Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions may give differing responses
d. The neuromuscular junction (Fig. 6.5)
e. The nerve stimulus and action potential
i. The motor unit (Fig. 6.4)
f. From nerve impulse to muscle contraction
i. Neurotransmitters –
ii. Acetylcholine (Ach) -
g. The Sliding Filament Theory of muscle contraction
7. Physiology of skeletal muscle contraction
a. Characteristics
i. “All or none”
ii. Stimulated fibers
iii. Combinations of fibers
iv. Graded responses—different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening
1. Can be produced by changing:
2. The frequency of muscle stimulation
3. The number of muscle cells being stimulated at one time
b. Types of graded responses
i. Twitch – a single, brief contraction
1. Not a normal muscle function
2. Stimulus, latent period, contraction, relaxation
3. Incomplete and complete tetanus
ii. Summation –
1. Incomplete (treppe)
2. Fused
iii. Tetanus
1. One contraction immediately followed by another
2. The muscle does not completely return to resting state
3. The effects are added
iv. Unfused (Incomplete) tetanus
1. Some relaxation occurs between contractions
2. The results are summed
v. Fused (complete) tetanus
1. No evidence of relaxation before the following contractions
2. The result is a sustained muscle contraction
vi. Muscle response to strong stimuli
1. Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers stimulated
2. More fibers contracting results inu greater muscle tension
3. Muscles can continue to contract unless they run out of energy
c. Energy for muscle contraction
i. Initially muscles used stored ATP for energy:
1. ATP bonds are broken to release energy
2. Only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by muscles
ii. After initial time, other pathways must be utilized to produced ATP
iii. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP):
1. Muscle cells stored CP
a. CP is a high-energy molecule
2. After ATP (high energy) is depleted, ADP (low energy) is left
3. CP Transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP
4. CP supplies are exhausted in less than 15 seconds
iv. Aerobic respiration:
1. Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy (ATP)
2. This is a slower reaction that requires continuous oxygen
3. A series of metabolic pathways in the mitochondria
v. Anaerobic respiration/lactic acid formation
1. Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
2. When glucose is broken down only limited ATP is produced
3. This reaction is not as efficient, but is fast
4. Lactic acid produces muscle fatigue
vi. Muscle fatigue/oxygen debt
1. When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to contract even with a stimulus
2. Common cause for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt:
3. Oxygen must be “repaid” to tissue to remove oxygen deficit (heavy breathing)
4. Oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated lactic acid
5. Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of ATP causes the muscle to contract less
vii. Isotonic contractions:
1. Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during contractions
2. The muscle shortens and movement occurs
viii. Isometric contractions:
1. Tension in the muscles increases
2. The muscle is unable to shorten or produce movement
ix. Muscle tone
1. Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed muscle
2. Different fibers contract at different times to provide muscle tone
3. What is rigor mortis?
a. Muscles stiffen 3-4 hours after death, dissipates in 48-72 hours as muscle fibers begin to decompose
b. Due to cross bridge formation, but no ATP synthesis to release the bridges
x. Effect of exercise on muscles
1. Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance:
2. Low resistance (aerobic)
a. Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging):
i. Stronger, more flexible muscles, greater resistance to fatigue:
b. Makes body metabolism more efficent
3. Resistance (isometric) exercise (weight lifting) increases muscle size and strength
4. High resistance (anaerobic)
d. Velocity and duration of contraction
i. Muscle fiber type
1. Slow oxidative fibers – dark meat
2. Fast oxidative fibers – white meat
8. Muscles and body movement
a. Movement is attained due to a muscle moving an attached bone
b. Five golden rules of skeletal muscle activity – Table 6.2
c. Muscle attachments
Muscles are attached to atleast two points:
i. Origin – anchored end of muscle, doesn’t move
1. Attachment to an immovable bone
ii. Insertion – anchored end of muscle that does move
1. Attachment to a movable bone
iii. Action – describes the movement of the muscle (ie. Extensor)
d. Types of body movement
i. Flexion & extension
1. Flexion
a. Decreases the angle of the joint
b. Brings two bones closer together
c. Typical of hinge joints like knee and elbow
2. Extension
a. Increases angle between two bones
3. Hyperextension
a. Increasing angle beyond 180 degrees
ii. Rotation
1. Movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis
2. Common in ball-and-socket joints
3. Example is when you move atlas around the dens of axis (shake your head ”no”)
iii. Abduction & adduction
1. Abduction
a. Movement of a limb away from the midline
2. Adduction
a. Opposite of abduction
b. Movement of a limb toward the midline
iv. Circumduction
1. Combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction: swing with one end free and one end stable
2. Common in ball-and-socket joints
v. Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion
1. Dorsiflexion
a. Lifting the foot so that the superior surface approaches the shin
2. Plantar flexion
a. Depressing the foot (pointing the toes)
vi. Inversion & eversion
1. Inversion
a. Turn sole of foot medially
2. Eversion
a. Turn sole of foot laterally
vii. Supination & pronation
1. Supination
a. Forearm rotates laterally so palm faces anteriorly
2. Pronation
a. Forearm rotates medially so palm faces posteriorly
viii. Special Movements
1. Opposition
a. Move thumb to touch the tips of other fingers on the same hand
2. Protraction
a. Sticking out head or parts of face
3. Retraction
a. Pulling in head or parts of face
e. Types of muscle movement
1. Prime mover = agonists
a. Muscle with the major responsibility for a certain movement
2. Antagonist
a. Muscle that opposes or reverses a prime mover
3. Synergist
a. Muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps prevent rotation
4. Fixator
a. Stabilizes the origin of a prime mover (hold a bone still), back muscles for posture
f. Naming skeletal muscles
i. Location
1. Example
a. Temporalis (temporal bone)
ii. By number of origins
1. Examples
a. Triceps (three heads)
iii. By location of the muscle’s origin and insertion
1. Example
a. Sterno (on the sternum)
iv. Shape of muscle
1. Deltoid (triangular)
2. Trapezius
3. Serratus
4. Rhomboid
v. Relative size
1. Maximus
2. Minimus
3. Longus
4. Brevis
vi. By action of the muscle
1. Example
a. Flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)
vii. Direction of muscle fibers
1. Rectus
2. Transverses
3. Oblique
g. Number of origins
i. Bi
ii. Tri
iii. Quad
h. Location of attachments
i. Origin – anchored end of muscle, doesn’t move
ii. Insertion – anchored end of muscle that does move
i. Action – describes the movement of the muscle (ie. Extensor)
9. Major skeletal muscles of the body & prime action
a. Muscles of the head
i. Muscles of the scalp
1. Frontalis
2. Occipitalis
ii. Muscles of the face
1. Orbicularis oculi
2. Zygomaticus major
3. Levator labii superioris
4. Orbicularis oris
b. Muscles of mastication (chewing)
i. Masseter
ii. Temporalis
c. Muscles of the neck
i. Sternocleidomastoid
d. Muscles of the thorax/breathing
i. External intercostals
ii. Internal intercostals
iii. Diaphragm
e. Muscles of the abdominal wall
i. Rectus abdominis
ii. Transverse abdominis
iii. External oblique
iv. Internal oblique
f. Muscles of anterior thorax/ moving scapulae
i. Serratus anterior
g. Muscles of posterior thorax
i. Trapezius
ii. Levator scapulae
iii. Rhomboid major and minor
h. Muscles crossing the shoulder (arm movement)
i. Pectoralis major
ii. Latissimus dorsi
iii. Deltoid
iv. Rotator cuff = supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis
i. Muscles crossing the elbow (flexion & extension of forearm)
i. Triceps brachii
ii. Biceps brachii
iii. Brachioradialis
j. Muscles moving wrist and hand
i. Flexor carpi radialis
ii. Flexor carpi ulnaris
iii. Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis
k. Muscles crossing hip & knee joint (movement of thigh & leg)
i. Sartorius
ii. Gracilis
iii. Quadriceps femoris
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vastus medialis
3. Vastus intermedius
4. Vastus lateralis
iv. Gluteus maximus
v. Hamstrings (posterior thigh muscles)
1. Biceps femoris
2. Semimembranosus
3. Semitendinosus
l. Muscles of the leg
i. Tibialis anterior
ii. Gastrocnemius
iii. Soleus
1. Overview/similarities of muscle tissue
a. Muscles: responsible for all types of body movement
b. Muscle types (Table 6.1)
i. Skeletal
ii. Cardiac – found only in heart
iii. Smooth – internal systems like tube shaped organs, also hairs
c. Characteristics
i. Muscle cells are elongated (Muscle fiber = muscle cell)
ii. Contraction of muscles is due to the movement of microfilaments
iii. Prefixes
1. Sarcolemma
2. Sarcoplasm
3. Prefixes:
a. Myo and Mys = muscle
b. Sarco = flesh
d. Functional characteristics of muscle tissue
i. Excitability (also called responsiveness or irritability)—ability to receive and respond to a stimulus
ii. Contractility—ability to shorten when an adequate stimulus is recieved
iii. Extensibility—ability of muscle cells to be stretched
iv. Elasticity—ability to recoil and resume resting length after stretching
2. Skeletal muscle
a. Characteristics
i. Most are attached by tendons to bones
ii. Cells are multinucleate
iii. Striations—have visible banding (straight lines)
iv. Control—voluntary (subject to conscious control
b. Connective tissue wrappings:
i. Endomysium –encloses a single muscle fiber
ii. Epimysium—covers the entire skeletal muscle
iii. Perimysium—wraps around a fascicle (bundle) of muscle fibers
iv. Fascia—on the outside of the epimysium
v. Tendon—cord-like structures
1. When epimysium blends into a connective tissue attachment.
2. Epimysium is a wrapping that extends into a tendon
3. Mostly collagen fibers
4. Often cross a joint due to toughness and small size
vi. Aponeurosis—sheet-like structures
1. Attach muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages, or connective tissue coverings
c. Where skeletal muscles attach:
i. Bones
ii. Cartilages
iii. Connective Tissue coverings
3. Smooth muscles
a. Characteristics
i. Lacks striations
ii. Spindle-shaped cells
iii. Single Nucleus
iv. Control: involuntary—no conscious control
v. Where: found mainly in the walls of hollow organs
4. Cardiac muscles
a. Characteristics
i. Striations
ii. Usually single Nucleus
iii. Branching Cells
iv. Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc
v. Control: involuntary
vi. Where: only in the heart
5. Physiology of skeletal muscle
a. Muscle functions
i. Produce movement
ii. Maintain posture
iii. Stabilize joints
iv. Generate heat (movement)
b. Microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle
i. Sarcolemma—specialized plasma membrane
ii. Myofibrils—long organelles inside muscle cell
iii. Sarcoplasmic reticulum—specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
c. Myofibrils are aligned to give distinct bands
i. Sarcomere – functional unit of classification
1. Myofilaments
a. Myosin = thick filaments
b. Actin = thin filaments
2. Striations = patterns of cross stripes (Fig 6.3)
a. A band = dark band
i. Contains the entire length of the thick filaments
b. I band = light band
i. Contains only thin filaments
c. Z line
d. H zone
e. M line
ii. Ultrastructure and chemical composition of myofilaments (Fig. 6.7)
1. Myosin
a. Two heads
i. Actin binding site
ii. ATP binding site and ATPase
b. One tail
2. Thin filaments = actin + tropomyosin + troponin
a. Two strands of G-actin twisted
b. Two strands of tropomyosin
c. Troponin covers binding sites
iii. Sarcoplasmic reticulum – transmits calcium to myoplasm when stimulated
d. Generation of action potential across sarcolemma
i. Action potential defined -
ii. Resting potential
iii. Depolarization
iv. Repolarization
6. Contraction of skeletal muscle fiber
a. Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
b. Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be stimulated during the same interval
c. Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions may give differing responses
d. The neuromuscular junction (Fig. 6.5)
e. The nerve stimulus and action potential
i. The motor unit (Fig. 6.4)
f. From nerve impulse to muscle contraction
i. Neurotransmitters –
ii. Acetylcholine (Ach) -
g. The Sliding Filament Theory of muscle contraction
7. Physiology of skeletal muscle contraction
a. Characteristics
i. “All or none”
ii. Stimulated fibers
iii. Combinations of fibers
iv. Graded responses—different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening
1. Can be produced by changing:
2. The frequency of muscle stimulation
3. The number of muscle cells being stimulated at one time
b. Types of graded responses
i. Twitch – a single, brief contraction
1. Not a normal muscle function
2. Stimulus, latent period, contraction, relaxation
3. Incomplete and complete tetanus
ii. Summation –
1. Incomplete (treppe)
2. Fused
iii. Tetanus
1. One contraction immediately followed by another
2. The muscle does not completely return to resting state
3. The effects are added
iv. Unfused (Incomplete) tetanus
1. Some relaxation occurs between contractions
2. The results are summed
v. Fused (complete) tetanus
1. No evidence of relaxation before the following contractions
2. The result is a sustained muscle contraction
vi. Muscle response to strong stimuli
1. Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers stimulated
2. More fibers contracting results inu greater muscle tension
3. Muscles can continue to contract unless they run out of energy
c. Energy for muscle contraction
i. Initially muscles used stored ATP for energy:
1. ATP bonds are broken to release energy
2. Only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by muscles
ii. After initial time, other pathways must be utilized to produced ATP
iii. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP):
1. Muscle cells stored CP
a. CP is a high-energy molecule
2. After ATP (high energy) is depleted, ADP (low energy) is left
3. CP Transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP
4. CP supplies are exhausted in less than 15 seconds
iv. Aerobic respiration:
1. Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy (ATP)
2. This is a slower reaction that requires continuous oxygen
3. A series of metabolic pathways in the mitochondria
v. Anaerobic respiration/lactic acid formation
1. Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
2. When glucose is broken down only limited ATP is produced
3. This reaction is not as efficient, but is fast
4. Lactic acid produces muscle fatigue
vi. Muscle fatigue/oxygen debt
1. When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to contract even with a stimulus
2. Common cause for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt:
3. Oxygen must be “repaid” to tissue to remove oxygen deficit (heavy breathing)
4. Oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated lactic acid
5. Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of ATP causes the muscle to contract less
vii. Isotonic contractions:
1. Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during contractions
2. The muscle shortens and movement occurs
viii. Isometric contractions:
1. Tension in the muscles increases
2. The muscle is unable to shorten or produce movement
ix. Muscle tone
1. Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed muscle
2. Different fibers contract at different times to provide muscle tone
3. What is rigor mortis?
a. Muscles stiffen 3-4 hours after death, dissipates in 48-72 hours as muscle fibers begin to decompose
b. Due to cross bridge formation, but no ATP synthesis to release the bridges
x. Effect of exercise on muscles
1. Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance:
2. Low resistance (aerobic)
a. Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging):
i. Stronger, more flexible muscles, greater resistance to fatigue:
b. Makes body metabolism more efficent
3. Resistance (isometric) exercise (weight lifting) increases muscle size and strength
4. High resistance (anaerobic)
d. Velocity and duration of contraction
i. Muscle fiber type
1. Slow oxidative fibers – dark meat
2. Fast oxidative fibers – white meat
8. Muscles and body movement
a. Movement is attained due to a muscle moving an attached bone
b. Five golden rules of skeletal muscle activity – Table 6.2
c. Muscle attachments
Muscles are attached to atleast two points:
i. Origin – anchored end of muscle, doesn’t move
1. Attachment to an immovable bone
ii. Insertion – anchored end of muscle that does move
1. Attachment to a movable bone
iii. Action – describes the movement of the muscle (ie. Extensor)
d. Types of body movement
i. Flexion & extension
1. Flexion
a. Decreases the angle of the joint
b. Brings two bones closer together
c. Typical of hinge joints like knee and elbow
2. Extension
a. Increases angle between two bones
3. Hyperextension
a. Increasing angle beyond 180 degrees
ii. Rotation
1. Movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis
2. Common in ball-and-socket joints
3. Example is when you move atlas around the dens of axis (shake your head ”no”)
iii. Abduction & adduction
1. Abduction
a. Movement of a limb away from the midline
2. Adduction
a. Opposite of abduction
b. Movement of a limb toward the midline
iv. Circumduction
1. Combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction: swing with one end free and one end stable
2. Common in ball-and-socket joints
v. Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion
1. Dorsiflexion
a. Lifting the foot so that the superior surface approaches the shin
2. Plantar flexion
a. Depressing the foot (pointing the toes)
vi. Inversion & eversion
1. Inversion
a. Turn sole of foot medially
2. Eversion
a. Turn sole of foot laterally
vii. Supination & pronation
1. Supination
a. Forearm rotates laterally so palm faces anteriorly
2. Pronation
a. Forearm rotates medially so palm faces posteriorly
viii. Special Movements
1. Opposition
a. Move thumb to touch the tips of other fingers on the same hand
2. Protraction
a. Sticking out head or parts of face
3. Retraction
a. Pulling in head or parts of face
e. Types of muscle movement
1. Prime mover = agonists
a. Muscle with the major responsibility for a certain movement
2. Antagonist
a. Muscle that opposes or reverses a prime mover
3. Synergist
a. Muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps prevent rotation
4. Fixator
a. Stabilizes the origin of a prime mover (hold a bone still), back muscles for posture
f. Naming skeletal muscles
i. Location
1. Example
a. Temporalis (temporal bone)
ii. By number of origins
1. Examples
a. Triceps (three heads)
iii. By location of the muscle’s origin and insertion
1. Example
a. Sterno (on the sternum)
iv. Shape of muscle
1. Deltoid (triangular)
2. Trapezius
3. Serratus
4. Rhomboid
v. Relative size
1. Maximus
2. Minimus
3. Longus
4. Brevis
vi. By action of the muscle
1. Example
a. Flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)
vii. Direction of muscle fibers
1. Rectus
2. Transverses
3. Oblique
g. Number of origins
i. Bi
ii. Tri
iii. Quad
h. Location of attachments
i. Origin – anchored end of muscle, doesn’t move
ii. Insertion – anchored end of muscle that does move
i. Action – describes the movement of the muscle (ie. Extensor)
9. Major skeletal muscles of the body & prime action
a. Muscles of the head
i. Muscles of the scalp
1. Frontalis
2. Occipitalis
ii. Muscles of the face
1. Orbicularis oculi
2. Zygomaticus major
3. Levator labii superioris
4. Orbicularis oris
b. Muscles of mastication (chewing)
i. Masseter
ii. Temporalis
c. Muscles of the neck
i. Sternocleidomastoid
d. Muscles of the thorax/breathing
i. External intercostals
ii. Internal intercostals
iii. Diaphragm
e. Muscles of the abdominal wall
i. Rectus abdominis
ii. Transverse abdominis
iii. External oblique
iv. Internal oblique
f. Muscles of anterior thorax/ moving scapulae
i. Serratus anterior
g. Muscles of posterior thorax
i. Trapezius
ii. Levator scapulae
iii. Rhomboid major and minor
h. Muscles crossing the shoulder (arm movement)
i. Pectoralis major
ii. Latissimus dorsi
iii. Deltoid
iv. Rotator cuff = supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis
i. Muscles crossing the elbow (flexion & extension of forearm)
i. Triceps brachii
ii. Biceps brachii
iii. Brachioradialis
j. Muscles moving wrist and hand
i. Flexor carpi radialis
ii. Flexor carpi ulnaris
iii. Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis
k. Muscles crossing hip & knee joint (movement of thigh & leg)
i. Sartorius
ii. Gracilis
iii. Quadriceps femoris
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vastus medialis
3. Vastus intermedius
4. Vastus lateralis
iv. Gluteus maximus
v. Hamstrings (posterior thigh muscles)
1. Biceps femoris
2. Semimembranosus
3. Semitendinosus
l. Muscles of the leg
i. Tibialis anterior
ii. Gastrocnemius
iii. Soleus
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